1.1.1 stream index
1.2.1 index.html
1.3.1 homepage.css
1.4.1 phextio.min.ts
2.1.1 wikipedia-intro.txt
2.1.2 get-coordinate.sh
2.1.3 fetch.sh

# wiki articles
2.60.5/1.7.23/1.1.1 Battle_of_Mount_Austen,_the_Galloping_Horse,_and_the_Sea_Horse
3.14.5/1.1.1/1.1.1 Computer_science
10.15.14/20.5.1/1.1.1 John_Silva_Meehan
12.10.18/1.1.1/1.1.1 Lise_Meitner
14.4.1/14.4.1/1.1.1 Nvidia
20.9.19/1.1.1/1.1.1 The_Beatles
23.85.5/12.13.23/1.1.1 index.html
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<title>phext.io - your personal exocortex</title>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="homepage.css?rev=5.0.0" />
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1" />
</head>
<body>

<div id="root">

    <ul id="discovery">
      <li>Phext: hierarchical digital memory</li>
      <li>Q: What's a small file transfer? (10 ms transit)</li>
      <li>10 ms @ 56 Kbps => 70 bytes (2000)</li>
      <li>10 ms @ 10 Mbps => 12.5 KB (2005)</li>
      <li>10 ms @ 1 Gbps = 1250 KB (2015)</li>
      <li>TL;DR: With a modern gigabit fiber connection, you can download one wikipedia article per millisecond.</li>
    </ul>
  </div>  

  <div id="copyright">Copyright 2025 Phext, Inc. License: MIT. Version 5.0.</div>
</div>

<script type="application/javascript" src="phextio.min.ts"></script>

</body>
</html>homepage.css
body {
  background: #101419;
  color: white;
  font-family: sans-serif;
  font-size: 1.4em;
}
#root {
  margin: 0 auto;
  width: 80%;
}
a, a:visited {
  color: white;
  font-size: 1.6em;
}
a.small, a.small:visited {
  font-size: 1em;
}
.number {
  font-weight: bold;
  color: #8f8fd7;
}
.coordinates {
  font-style: italic;
  color: #8fef62;
}
input {
  border: 2px solid white;
  border-radius: 1px;
  padding: 4px;
  margin: 1px;
  margin-bottom: 4px;
}
#copyright {
  margin-top: 20px;
  font-size: 0.8em;
  font-weight: bold;
  font-family: monospace;
}
.commandBar {
  min-width: 720px;
}
#console {
  float: left;
  width: 50%;
  height: 1000px;
  border: 1px solid grey;
  color: #e0ffe0;
}
#phext {
  width: 90%;  
  border: 3px solid grey;
  border-radius: 8px;
  margin: 0;
  padding: 0;
  padding: 30px;
  padding-left: 100px;
}
#phext ul,
#phext ul li {
  margin: 0;
  padding: 0;
}
textarea {
  font-family: monospace;
}
.coordheader {
  text-align: right;
  width: 120px;
}
th {
  text-align: right;
  padding: 0;
}
#hyperJump {
  width: 80px;
  height: 23px;
}
#coordsX,
#coordsY,
#coordsZ,
#pscrollbreak,
#psectionbreak,
#pchapterbreak,
#pbookbreak,
#pvolumebreak,
#pcollectionbreak,
#pseriesbreak,
#pshelfbreak,
#plibrarybreak,
#targetCoordinates {
  font-family: monospace;
  margin: 0;
  padding: 0;
  padding-left: 8px;
  padding-right: 8px;
}
#targetCoordinates {
  font-size: 1.6em;
}
#greyPill {
  background: grey;
  color: black;
}
#redPill {
  background: red;
  color: white;
}
#bluePill {
  background: blue;
  color: white;
}
#whitePill {
  background: white;
  color: black;
}
#purplePill {
  background: purple;
  color: white;
}
#orangePill {
  background: orange;
  color: black;
}
.pill {
  font-weight: bold;
  border-radius: 12px;
  padding: 12px;
  margin-bottom: 20px;
  transition: transform 0.8s;
}
.pill:hover {
  transform: scale(1.25);
  cursor: pointer;
  border-color: grey;
}
#subspaceTitle {
  min-width: 200px;
}
#subspace {
  position: relative;
  z-index: 1;
}
#visualizer {
  position: absolute;
  top: 200px;
  right: 100px;
  width: 300px;
}
#qrcode {
  border: 32px solid yellow;
  width: 640px;
  height: 640px;
  background: url(v3.4-launch.webp) top left no-repeat;
  z-index: 2;
  display: none;
}
#linkArea {
  padding: 16px;
  clear: both;
}
#seed {
  padding: 4px;
  margin: 4px;
}
#seeds {
  padding: 4px;
  margin: 4px;
  font-size: 1em;
  font-weight: bold;
  width: 250px;
}
#quest {
  width: 94%;
  min-height: 300px;
  margin: 0 auto;
  display: none;
}
.tiles {
  width: 90%;
  min-width: 800px;
}
.nodes {
  width: 90%;
}
.node {
  float: left;
  width: 300px;
  min-height: 100px;
  height: 100px;
  border: 1px solid #dcdcd0;
  background-color: #202020;
  border-radius: 4px;
  margin: 4px;
  padding: 2px;
  margin-right: 6px;
  position: relative;
  font-size: 0.8em;
  overflow: auto;
  z-index: 100;
  transition: transform 1.2s;
}
.node:hover {
  transform: scale(1.2);
  min-height: 300px;
  cursor: pointer;
  z-index: 101;
  border-color: yellow;
}
.node:hover {
  background-color: #454647;
  color: #e0e0e0;
  cursor: hand;
}
.node input {
  display: none;
  position: absolute;
  top: 4px;
  right: 4px;
}
#goal {
  border: 3px solid grey;
  border-radius: 8px;
  width: 80%;
  min-height: 110px;
  padding: 16px;
  margin-bottom: 20px;
}
#goal a,
#goal a:visited {
  font-size: 1em;
}
#goal ul {
  padding: 10px;
}
#goal li {
  margin-bottom: 4px;
}
ul#discovery {
  list-style-type: none;
}
ul#discovery li {
  background-color: #424242;
}
ul#discovery li input {
  width: 80px;
  margin: 16px;
  margin-right: 32px;
}
#tab_buttons {
  margin-bottom: 10px;    
}
.tabbutton {
  width: 120px;
  margin: 0px;
  padding: 4px;
  text-align: right;
  font-family: monospace;
}
#tab_editor {
  width: 80%;
  min-height: 400px;
}
#logo {
  background: url("phext-logo.png") top left no-repeat;
  width: 128px;
  height: 128px;
  position: absolute;
  top: 10px;
  left: 5%;
  z-index: 2;
  padding-top: 130px;
  padding-left: 16px;
}
table,
table tr th,
table tr td {
  border-collapse: collapse;
  border: 1px solid #454647;
  padding: 20px;
  padding-left: 40px;
  padding-right: 60px;
  margin: 0px;
}
th { text-align: left; font-size: 1.1em; text-decoration: underline; }phextio.min.ts
// phext.ts
// this monstrosity of an implementation is basically Will's stream of consciousness
// if you want to refactor it for clarity, please submit a pr
// (c) 2023-2024 Phext, Inc.
// License: MIT
// see phext.ts for the source
// compressed with https://www.toptal.com/developers/javascript-minifier
var upstream="https://github.com/wbic16/phextio",raw="",phexts={};localStorage.raw&&localStorage.raw.length>0?raw=localStorage.raw:(raw="<html>\n<head>\n<title>Reference Phext Document</title>\n</head>\n<body>\n\nYou are currently at 1.1.1/1.1.1/1.1.1.\nWe are aware of the following nodes:\n\n<a href='phext://1.1.1/1.1.1/1.1.2'>Scroll #2</a>\n<a href='phext://1.1.1/1.1.1/1.1.3'>Scroll #3</a>\n<a href='phext://1.1.1/1.1.1/1.1.4'>Scroll #4</a>\n\n</body>\n</html>\x17Scroll #2\n---------\nThis happens to be a MarkDown file.\n\n\x17Scroll #3: Just a line of text.\x17<html>\n<head>\n<title>Scroll #4</title>\n</head>\n<body>\n<a href='phext://1.1.1/1.1.1/1.1.1'>Return Home</a>\n\n<h1>Scroll #4</h1>\n</body>\n</html>",localStorage.raw=raw);var phextMode="n";const LINE_BREAK="\n",SCROLL_BREAK="\x17",SECTION_BREAK="\x18",CHAPTER_BREAK="\x19",BOOK_BREAK="\x1a",VOLUME_BREAK="\x1c",COLLECTION_BREAK="\x1d",SERIES_BREAK="\x1e",SHELF_BREAK="\x1f",LIBRARY_BREAK="\x01",F1_KEY=112,F2_KEY=113,F3_KEY=114,F4_KEY=115,F5_KEY=116,F6_KEY=117,F7_KEY=118,F8_KEY=119,F9_KEY=120,F10_KEY=121,F11_KEY=122,F12_KEY=123;var enterKey="\n",replacementDescription="ENTER",priorButton=!1,DimensionBreaks=["\x17","\x18","\x19","\x1a","\x1c","\x1d","\x1e","\x1f","\x01"];function defaultCoordinates(){var e=[];return e["\n"]=1,e["\x17"]=1,e["\x18"]=1,e["\x19"]=1,e["\x1a"]=1,e["\x1c"]=1,e["\x1d"]=1,e["\x1e"]=1,e["\x1f"]=1,e["\x01"]=1,e}var gl=!1,ns=!1,ta=!1,cs=!1,ls=!1,te=!1,tb=!1,cx=!1,cy=!1,cz=!1,wr=!1,st=!1,cb=!1,lk=!1,cp=!1,ha=!1,sa=!1,vr=!1,qr=!1,lt=!1,sd=!1,se=!1,lts=!1,qrui=!1,qrd=!1,qrl=!1,qt=!1,nodes=[],qurl="",mnt=!1,mte=!1,mss=!1,tbe=!1,tblb=!1,tbsf=!1,tbsr=!1,tbcn=!1,tbvm=!1,tbbk=!1,tbch=!1,tbsn=!1,tbsc=!1,tab_libraries=[],tab_shelves=[],tab_series=[],tab_collections=[],tab_volumes=[],tab_books=[],tab_chapters=[],tab_sections=[],tab_scrolls=[],phextCoordinate="1.1.1/1.1.1/1.1.1";function dgid(e){return document.getElementById(e)}function loadVars(){gl||(gl=dgid("goal")),ns||(ns=dgid("nodes")),ta||(ta=dgid("scroll")),cs||(cs=dgid("coords")),ls||(ls=dgid("subspace")),te||(te=dgid("tiles")),tb||(tb=dgid("tabs")),cx||(cx=dgid("coordsX")),cy||(cy=dgid("coordsY")),cz||(cz=dgid("coordsZ")),wr||(wr=dgid("whiterabbit")),st||(st=dgid("subspaceTitle")),cb||(cb=dgid("commandBar")),cp||(cp=dgid("coordinatePlate")),ha||(ha=dgid("helparea")),sa||(sa=dgid("subspaceArea")),lt||(lt=dgid("linkerText")),sd||(sd=dgid("seed")),se||(se=dgid("seeds")),lts||(lts=dgid("linkerStatus")),qrui||(qrui=dgid("qrcode")),qrl||(qrl=dgid("qrlabel")),qt||(qt=dgid("quest")),mnt||(mnt=dgid("modeNestedTabs")),mte||(mte=dgid("modeTiles")),mss||(mss=dgid("modeSubspace")),te||(tbe=dgid("tab_editor")),tblb||(tblb=dgid("tab_library")),tbsf||(tbsf=dgid("tab_shelf")),tbsr||(tbsr=dgid("tab_series")),tbcn||(tbcn=dgid("tab_collection")),tbvm||(tbvm=dgid("tab_volume")),tbbk||(tbbk=dgid("tab_book")),tbch||(tbch=dgid("tab_chapter")),tbsn||(tbsn=dgid("tab_section")),tbsc||(tbsc=dgid("tab_scroll"));for(var e=1;e<=7;++e)tab_libraries[e]=dgid("lb"+e),tab_shelves[e]=dgid("sf"+e),tab_series[e]=dgid("sr"+e),tab_collections[e]=dgid("cn"+e),tab_volumes[e]=dgid("vm"+e),tab_books[e]=dgid("bk"+e),tab_chapters[e]=dgid("ch"+e),tab_sections[e]=dgid("sn"+e),tab_scrolls[e]=dgid("sc"+e);localStorage.seed&&(sd.value=localStorage.seed)}function updateCoordinate(){phextCoordinate=cx.value+"/"+cy.value+"/"+cz.value}var coords=defaultCoordinates(),target=defaultCoordinates(),scrollFound=!1;function loadPhext(){raw=ls.value,coords=defaultCoordinates();var e=cz.value.split("."),t=cy.value.split("."),s=cx.value.split(".");e.length>=1&&(target["\x01"]=e[0]),e.length>=2&&(target["\x1f"]=e[1]),e.length>=3&&(target["\x1e"]=e[2]),t.length>=1&&(target["\x1d"]=t[0]),t.length>=2&&(target["\x1c"]=t[1]),t.length>=3&&(target["\x1a"]=t[2]),s.length>=1&&(target["\x19"]=s[0]),s.length>=2&&(target["\x18"]=s[1]),s.length>=3&&(target["\x17"]=s[2]),scrollFound=!1,qt.innerHTML="",nodes=[],totalScrolls=1,raw.split("\x01").forEach(e=>processLibrary(e)),scrollFound||(ta.value=""),qt.innerHTML=nodes.join("\n")}function dimensionBreak(e){"\x01"==e&&(++coords["\x01"],coords["\x1f"]=1,coords["\x1e"]=1,coords["\x1d"]=1,coords["\x1c"]=1,coords["\x1a"]=1,coords["\x19"]=1,coords["\x18"]=1,coords["\x17"]=1),"\x1f"==e&&(++coords["\x1f"],coords["\x1e"]=1,coords["\x1d"]=1,coords["\x1c"]=1,coords["\x1a"]=1,coords["\x19"]=1,coords["\x18"]=1,coords["\x17"]=1),"\x1e"==e&&(++coords["\x1e"],coords["\x1d"]=1,coords["\x1c"]=1,coords["\x1a"]=1,coords["\x19"]=1,coords["\x18"]=1,coords["\x17"]=1),"\x1d"==e&&(++coords["\x1d"],coords["\x1c"]=1,coords["\x1a"]=1,coords["\x19"]=1,coords["\x18"]=1,coords["\x17"]=1),"\x1c"==e&&(++coords["\x1c"],coords["\x1a"]=1,coords["\x19"]=1,coords["\x18"]=1,coords["\x17"]=1),"\x1a"==e&&(++coords["\x1a"],coords["\x19"]=1,coords["\x18"]=1,coords["\x17"]=1),"\x19"==e&&(++coords["\x19"],coords["\x18"]=1,coords["\x17"]=1),"\x18"==e&&(++coords["\x18"],coords["\x17"]=1),"\x17"==e&&++coords["\x17"]}function processLibrary(e){e.split("\x1f").forEach(e=>processShelf(e)),dimensionBreak("\x01")}function processShelf(e){e.split("\x1e").forEach(e=>processSeries(e)),dimensionBreak("\x1f")}function processSeries(e){e.split("\x1d").forEach(e=>processCollection(e)),dimensionBreak("\x1e")}function processCollection(e){e.split("\x1c").forEach(e=>processVolume(e)),dimensionBreak("\x1d")}function processVolume(e){e.split("\x1a").forEach(e=>processBook(e)),dimensionBreak("\x1c")}function processBook(e){e.split("\x19").forEach(e=>processChapter(e)),dimensionBreak("\x1a")}function processChapter(e){e.split("\x18").forEach(e=>processSection(e)),dimensionBreak("\x19")}function processSection(e){e.split("\x17").forEach(e=>processScroll(e)),dimensionBreak("\x18")}function coordinatesMatch(e,t){return e["\x17"]==t["\x17"]&&e["\x18"]==t["\x18"]&&e["\x19"]==t["\x19"]&&e["\x1a"]==t["\x1a"]&&e["\x1c"]==t["\x1c"]&&e["\x1d"]==t["\x1d"]&&e["\x1e"]==t["\x1e"]&&e["\x1f"]==t["\x1f"]&&e["\x01"]==t["\x01"]}function coordToString(e){var t,s=e["\x01"]+"."+e["\x1f"]+"."+e["\x1e"];return s+"/"+(e["\x1d"]+"."+e["\x1c"]+"."+e["\x1a"])+"/"+(e["\x19"]+"."+e["\x18"]+".")+e["\x17"]}function coordinateHit(e){var t=e["\x01"]+"."+e["\x1f"]+"."+e["\x1e"],s=e["\x1d"]+"."+e["\x1c"]+"."+e["\x1a"],o=e["\x19"]+"."+e["\x18"]+"."+e["\x17"];return"<a href='"+getPhextUrl(o,s,t)+"'>@"+t+"/"+s+"/"+o+"</a>"}function drawNode(e,t){e["\x17"];var s=t;return t.length>250&&(s=t.substring(0,250),s+="..."),"<div class='node' onclick='loadNode("+coordToString(e)+");'>"+coordinateHit(e)+" <input type='button' onclick='editScroll("+e+");' value='Edit' /><br />"+s+"</div>"}var totalScrolls=1;function processScroll(e){if(coordinatesMatch(target,coords)){ta.value=e,scrollFound=!0;var t=e.split("\n").length;t<100?ta.rows=t:ta.rows=100}e.length>0&&(nodes[totalScrolls]=drawNode(coords,e),++totalScrolls),dimensionBreak("\x17")}function safeEncode(e){return!e||e.length<1?"":encodeURIComponent(e.replaceAll("'","%27"))}function updateQR(){qr||(qr=new QRCode(document.getElementById("qrcode"),{text:"https://phext.io/index.html",width:640,height:640}),qrui.style.background="#000"),qr.clear(),qr.makeCode(qurl)}var timeoutDelay=1e3;function getPhextUrl(e,t,s){return qurl="https://phext.io/index.html?seed="+safeEncode(sd.value)+"&cz="+safeEncode(s)+"&cy="+safeEncode(t)+"&cx="+safeEncode(e)+"&"+phextMode+"="+safeEncode(raw),lt.value=qurl,qrd&&clearTimeout(qrd),qrd=setTimeout(updateQR,timeoutDelay),lts.innerHTML="",qurl}function greypill(){gl.style.display="block",ns.style.display="block",wr.style.display="none",ta.style.display="none",cp.style.display="none",ha.style.display="none",sa.style.display="none",qrui.style.display="block",qrl.style.display="none",qt.style.display="none"}function redpill(e){phextMode="r",st.innerHTML="Follow the <a class='small' href='white-rabbit.html'>White Rabbit</a>.",gl.style.display="none",ns.style.display="none",wr.style.display="block",ta.style.display="block",cp.style.display="block",ha.style.display="block",sa.style.display="block",qrui.style.display="block",qrl.style.display="block",qt.style.display="block",updateCoordinate(),loadPhext(),getPhextUrl(cx.value,cy.value,cz.value),e&&saveContent()}function saveContent(){if(localStorage.raw=ls.value,sd.value&&0!=sd.value.trim().length||(sd.value="holiday"),!phexts[sd.value]){var e=document.createElement("option");e.value=sd.value,e.innerHTML=sd.value,e.selected=!0,se.appendChild(e)}phexts[sd.value]=ls.value,localStorage.seed=sd.value,localStorage.phexts=JSON.stringify(phexts)}function bluepill(){phextMode="b",gl.style.display="none",ns.style.display="none",wr.style.display="none",ta.style.display="none",cp.style.display="none",ha.style.display="none",sa.style.display="block",qrui.style.display="none",qrl.style.display="none",qt.style.display="none",ta.value=raw,ta.rows=raw.split("\n").length,st.innerHTML="Believe",ta.value=raw,dgid("linker").href=getPhextUrl(cx.value,cy.value,cz.value)+"#BluePill"}function whitepill(){window.open(upstream)}function whiteRabbit(){window.open("whiterabbit.html")}function copyUrl(){getPhextUrl(),saveContent(),navigator.clipboard.writeText(qurl),lts.innerHTML="URL copied!"}function setValue(e,t){var s=dgid(e);s&&s.value&&(s.value=t)}function startup(){setValue("pscrollbreak","\x17"),setValue("psectionbreak","\x18"),setValue("pchapterbreak","\x19"),setValue("pbookbreak","\x1a"),setValue("pvolumebreak","\x1c"),setValue("pcollectionbreak","\x1d"),setValue("pseriesbreak","\x1e"),setValue("pshelfbreak","\x1f"),setValue("plibrarybreak","\x01"),loadVars(),edit("tabs");var e=Object.fromEntries(new URLSearchParams(window.location.search).entries());e.cz&&(cz.value=e.cz),e.cy&&(cy.value=e.cy),e.cx&&(cx.value=e.cx),e.seed&&(localStorage.seed=e.seed,sd.value=e.seed),localStorage.phexts&&Object.keys(phexts=JSON.parse(localStorage.phexts)).forEach(e=>{var t=document.createElement("option");t.value=e,t.innerHTML=e,e==sd.value&&(t.selected=!0),se.appendChild(t)}),phexts&&phexts[e.seed]&&(localStorage.raw=localStorage.phexts[e.seed]),localStorage.raw&&(raw=localStorage.raw),ls&&(ls.value=raw),e.r&&(raw=e.r.replaceAll("%27","'"),ls.value=raw,redpill(!1)),e.b&&(raw=e.b.replaceAll("%27","'"),ls.value=raw,bluepill())}function setEnterType(e,t,s){enterKey=s;var o=dgid("CB"+e+"_"+t);o&&(priorButton&&(priorButton.style.borderStyle="",priorButton.style.backgroundColor=""),o.style.borderStyle="inset",o.style.backgroundColor="orange",replacementDescription="&lt;"+o.value+"&gt;",priorButton=o)}function phextMods(e,t){if(!remapFunctionKeys[e])return;for(var s=F1_KEY;s<=121;++s)if(t.keyCode==s){t.preventDefault();var o=dgid("CB"+e+"_"+(t.keyCode-F1_KEY+2));o&&o.click();continue}if("Enter"!==t.key)return;t.preventDefault();var l=document.activeElement;let r=l.selectionStart,a=l.value.substring(0,r),n=l.value.substring(l.selectionEnd,l.value.length),d="\n"==enterKey?enterKey:enterKey+"\n";l.value=a+d+n,l.selectionStart=l.selectionEnd=r+1,l.focus()}var remapFunctionKeys=[];function toggle(e){var t=dgid("disabler"+e);if(!t)return;let s="Disable"===t.value;t.value=s?"Enable":"Disable",remapFunctionKeys[e]=s}function chooseSeed(e){sd.value=e.value,ls.value=phexts[e.value]}function removeSeed(){phexts[sd.value]&&(delete phexts[sd.value],Object.keys(se.options).forEach(e=>{se.options[e]&&se.options[e].value==sd.value&&se.options.remove(e)}),sd.value=se.options[se.selectedIndex].value,localStorage.seed=sd.value,localStorage.phexts=JSON.stringify(phexts))}function edit(e){sd&&(sd.style.display="block"),cp&&(cp.style.display="block");var t="tabs"==e;tb&&(tb.style.display=t?"block":"none"),mnt&&(mnt.style.border=t?"2px solid":"");var s="tiles"==e;te&&(te.style.display=s?"block":"none"),mte&&(mte.style.border=s?"2px solid":"");var o="subspace"==e,l=o?"block":"none";mss&&(mss.style.border=o?"2px solid":""),ls&&(ls.style.display=l),st&&(st.style.display=l),ta&&(ta.style.display=l),cb&&(cb.style.display=l),tbsf&&(tbsf.style.display="none"),tbsr&&(tbsr.style.display="none"),tbcn&&(tbcn.style.display="none"),tbvm&&(tbvm.style.display="none"),tbbk&&(tbbk.style.display="none"),tbch&&(tbch.style.display="none"),tbsn&&(tbsn.style.display="none"),tbsc&&(tbsc.style.display="none")}function tab_break(e){tbsf.style.display=e>=1?"block":"none",tbsr.style.display=e>=2?"block":"none",tbcn.style.display=e>=3?"block":"none",tbvm.style.display=e>=4?"block":"none",tbbk.style.display=e>=5?"block":"none",tbch.style.display=e>=6?"block":"none",tbsn.style.display=e>=7?"block":"none",tbsc.style.display=e>=8?"block":"none"}function jump(e,t,s){var o=cz.value.split("."),l=cy.value.split("."),r=cx.value.split(".");if("lb"==t){tab_break(1),o[0]=s;for(var a=1;a<=7;++a)tab_libraries[a].style.border="",tab_libraries[a].style.backgroundColor=""}if("sf"==t){tab_break(2),o[1]=s;for(var a=1;a<=7;++a)tab_shelves[a].style.border="",tab_shelves[a].style.backgroundColor=""}if("sr"==t){tab_break(3),o[2]=s;for(var a=1;a<=7;++a)tab_series[a].style.border="",tab_series[a].style.backgroundColor=""}if("cn"==t){tab_break(4),l[0]=s;for(var a=1;a<=7;++a)tab_collections[a].style.border="",tab_collections[a].style.backgroundColor=""}if("vm"==t){tab_break(5),l[1]=s;for(var a=1;a<=7;++a)tab_volumes[a].style.border="",tab_volumes[a].style.backgroundColor=""}if("bk"==t){tab_break(6),l[2]=s;for(var a=1;a<=7;++a)tab_books[a].style.border="",tab_books[a].style.backgroundColor=""}if("ch"==t){tab_break(7),r[0]=s;for(var a=1;a<=7;++a)tab_chapters[a].style.border="",tab_chapters[a].style.backgroundColor=""}if("sn"==t){tab_break(8),r[1]=s;for(var a=1;a<=7;++a)tab_sections[a].style.border="",tab_sections[a].style.backgroundColor=""}if("sc"==t){tab_break(9),r[2]=s;for(var a=1;a<=7;++a)tab_scrolls[a].style.border="",tab_scrolls[a].style.backgroundColor=""}e.style.border="1px solid orange",e.style.backgroundColor="#6560e0",cz.value=o[0]+"."+o[1]+"."+o[2],cy.value=l[0]+"."+l[1]+"."+l[2],cx.value=r[0]+"."+r[1]+"."+r[2]}function tab_value(e,t){return parseInt(tab_libraries[t].value.replace(e,""))-1}function tab_shift(e,t){var s="";if("lb"==e&&(s="Library "),"sf"==e&&(s="Shelf "),"sr"==e&&(s="Series "),"cn"==e&&(s="Collection "),"vm"==e&&(s="Volume "),"bk"==e&&(s="Book "),"ch"==e&&(s="Chapter "),"sn"==e&&(s="Section "),"sc"==e&&(s="Scroll "),0!=s.length){var o=tab_value(s,1);"add"==t&&(o+=1),"sub"==t&&(o-=1),o<0&&(o=0),o>100&&(o=100);for(var l=1;l<=7;++l)tab_libraries[l].value=s+(l+o)}}remapFunctionKeys[1]=!0,remapFunctionKeys[2]=!0;wikipedia-intro.txt
This phext is a snapshot of wikipedia, built collaboratively.

# Getting Started

To use this document, you'll need to install SQ (run `cargo install sq`).

## Coordinates

Wikipedia articles have a number of features we want to preserve in phext.

1. Revision History
2. Article
3. Talk
4. Rendered HTML

Pages on Wikipedia are created with plain text article names. Ideally, you should be able to directly jump to a corresponding coordinate without consulting a lookup table.

Let's take a look at a typical page name (page of the day from Feb 5, 2025):
John_Silva_Meehan

This 17-digit identifier wastes a lot of address space. Traditionally, that might bother us, and encourage an offset+lookup-based approach. Phext excels at sparse dimensional traversal, however, so let's just roll with it.

According to Wikipedia, article titles are unique and serve as primary keys. For the sake of this experiment, we will consider article titles of up to 1,000 characters - on the assumption that users prefer URLs they can actually fit on a screen.

We'll use the first 6 coordinates of this document to orient ourselves within a wikipedia-centric volume that aligns with the structure of the article title that we're consuming. The remaining 3 coordinates can be used to encode metadata as needed.

We'll use this numbering convention:
* 1.1.1 Article
* 1.1.2 Oldest Revision
* 1.1.3 Second Oldest Revision
* 1.1.N Newest Revision (Just keep appending scrolls for snapshots)
* 1.2.1 Talk Page
* 1.3.x Translations
* 1.4+.x Reserved
* 2.x.x+ Reserved

The 6D high-level structure is broken down as follows (using 
John_Silva_Meehan as an example):

- J15N (convert title to uppercase, string length, first + last)
  - The internationalization (i18n) structure directly encodes LB.SF.SR
- First Three Words in similar format, XOR'd
  - J2N xor S3A xor M4N

* library: 10
* shelf: 15
* series: 14
* collection: 
* volume: 
* book: 

74.15.78/84.5.65/1.1.1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Article_titles



## Let's Go

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Pageget-coordinate.sh
#!/bin/bash
set -e
ARTICLE="$1"
AL=${#ARTICLE}
INNER=$(($AL-2))
FIRST=${ARTICLE:0:1}
LAST=${ARTICLE:$AL-1:1}
FIRST=${FIRST^^}
LAST=${LAST^^}
FIRST=$(printf '%d' "'$FIRST")
LAST=$(printf '%d' "'$LAST")
#echo "Computing phext coordinate for Wikipedia Article '$ARTICLE'..."
#echo "First: $FIRST"
#echo "Length: $INNER"
#echo "Last: $LAST"
FIRST=$(($FIRST - 64))
LAST=$(($LAST - 64))
LIBRARY=$FIRST
SHELF=$INNER
SERIES=$LAST
IFS='_' read -ra parts <<< "$ARTICLE"
P1=${parts[0]^^}
P2=${parts[1]^^}
P3=${parts[2]^^}
P1L=$((${#P1} - 2))
P2L=$((${#P2} - 2))
P3L=$((${#P3} - 2))
P1F=${P1:0:1}
P2F=${P2:0:1}
P3F=${P3:0:1}
P1T=${P1:${#P1}-1:1}
P2T=${P2:${#P2}-1:1}
P3T=${P3:${#P3}-1:1}
#echo "1. $P1F.$P1L.$P1T"
#echo "2. $P2F.$P2L.$P2T"
#echo "3. $P3F.$P3L.$P3T"
P1F=$(printf '%d' "'$P1F")
P2F=$(printf '%d' "'$P2F")
P3F=$(printf '%d' "'$P3F")
P1T=$(printf '%d' "'$P1T")
P2T=$(printf '%d' "'$P2T")
P3T=$(printf '%d' "'$P3T")
P1F=$(($P1F - 64))
P2F=$(($P2F - 64))
P3F=$(($P3F - 64))
P1T=$(($P1T - 64))
P2T=$(($P2T - 64))
P3T=$(($P3T - 64))
COLLECTION=$(($P1F ^ $P2F ^ $P3F))
VOLUME=$(($P1L ^ $P2L ^ $P3L))
BOOK=$(($P1T ^ $P2T ^ $P3T))
PATCHED=1
# Ensure we don't produce invalid phext coordinates
if [ $LIBRARY -lt 1 ]; then LIBRARY=1; fi
if [ $SHELF -lt 1 ]; then SHELF=1; fi
if [ $SERIES -lt 1 ]; then SERIES=1; fi
if [ $COLLECTION -lt 1 ]; then COLLECTION=1; fi
if [ $VOLUME -lt 1 ]; then VOLUME=1; fi
if [ $BOOK -lt 1 ]; then BOOK=1; fi
echo "$LIBRARY.$SHELF.$SERIES/$COLLECTION.$VOLUME.$BOOK/1.1.1"
exit 0fetch.sh
#!/bin/bash
ARTICLE="$1"
FILE="article.txt"
if [ "x$2" != "x" ]; then
  FILE="$2"
fi
COORDINATE=`./wiki-coordinate.sh "$ARTICLE"`
SQ_RUNNING=`ps -ef |grep -v grep |grep -c "sq wikipedia.phext"`
if [ $SQ_RUNNING -eq 0 ]; then
  rm -rf .sq
  sq wikipedia.phext &
fi
FOUND=`sq toc |grep -c $COORDINATE`
if [ $FOUND -eq 0 ]; then
  echo "No entry for '$ARTICLE' => $COORDINATE found."
  echo "$ARTICLE" >$FILE
  echo "" >>$FILE
  echo "" >>$FILE
  echo "Initialized $FILE."
else
  sq pull $COORDINATE $FILE
fiBattle_of_Mount_Austen,_the_Galloping_Horse,_and_the_Sea_Horse

{{short description|World War II battle on Guadalcanal}}
{{Pp-protected|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2018}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Mount Austen, the Galloping Horse, and the Sea Horse
|partof=the [[Pacific War|Pacific Theater]] of [[World War II]]
|image=Woundet Soldier at Guadalcanal.jpg
|image_size=300px
|caption=A wounded United States Army soldier is assisted off of the line in the hills near the Matanikau River on 15 January 1943
|date=15 December 1942&nbsp;– 23 January 1943; (1 month, 1 week, and 1 day)
|place=[[Guadalcanal]], [[British Solomon Islands|Solomon Islands]]
|result=Allied victory
|combatant1='''[[Allies of World War II|Allied]] forces including:'''<br />{{flag|United States|1912}}<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of the Solomon Islands (1906–1947).svg}} [[British Solomon Islands#World War II|British Solomon Islands]]<br />{{flagdeco|Fiji|colonial}} [[Colonial Fiji|Colony of Fiji]]<br />{{flagcountry|Dominion of New Zealand}}<ref>Jersey, pp. 356–358. Assisting the Americans in this battle were a small number of Fijian [[commando]]s led by officers and [[non-commissioned officer]]s from the [[New Zealand Expeditionary Force]].</ref>
|combatant2={{flagcountry|Empire of Japan}}
|commander1={{flagicon|USA|1912}} [[Alexander Patch]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Empire of Japan|army}} [[Harukichi Hyakutake]]
|units1={{flagicon|USA|1912}} [[XIV Corps (United States)|XIV Corps]]
* [[2nd Marine Division (United States)|2nd Marine Division]]
* [[Americal Division]]
* [[25th Infantry Division (United States)|25th Infantry Division]]
* [[147th Infantry Regiment (United States)|147th Infantry Regiment]]
[[New Zealand Expeditionary Force]]
|units2={{flagicon|Empire of Japan|army}} [[Seventeenth Army (Japan)|17th Army]]
* [[2nd Division (Imperial Japanese Army)|2nd Infantry Division]]
* [[38th Infantry Division (Imperial Japanese Army)|38th Infantry Division]]
* 35th Infantry Brigade
{{Flagicon|Empire of Japan|naval}} [[IJN 8th Fleet|8th Fleet]]
|strength1=50,078<ref>Miller, p. 220. This number includes all US military forces on Guadalcanal, not necessarily the number directly involved in the battle.</ref>
|strength2=20,000<ref>Miller, p. 215; Frank, p. 497. Miller says that there were 25,000 Japanese troops on the island at this time, but Frank goes into more detail on the Japanese troop strength, stating "A (Japanese) strength return dated 20 November (1942) showed that of the 29,117 soldiers landed since 7 August, the deduction of those killed, evacuated, or hospitalized because of wounds or illness left only 18,295 still with their units. Of this latter total, those fit by liberal definition for combat duty numbered only 12,775. The survivors of the original garrison (including construction workers) and the Imperial Navy units landed since 7&nbsp;August added another 2,376 to the aggregate unit strength, but only 550 to the rolls of those fit for combat."</ref>
|casualties1=250 killed<ref>Exact American losses for each action in the battle are not recorded. Miller, pp. 244, 249–252, 270, 276–278; Frank, pp. 533–534, 555–558, 566–567; Anderson. Anderson states that 200 total were killed, but adding up the known casualties from each action arrives at a number closer to 250.</ref>
|casualties2=2,700–3,300 killed<ref>An unknown number, but probably in the thousands more Japanese soldiers throughout Guadalcanal died during this time from starvation and tropical disease but this is the approximate number killed by direct American action during this battle. Miller, pp. 244, 249–252, 270, 275–279; Frank, pp. 533–534, 555–558, 562–563, 566–567.</ref>
}}
{{Campaignbox Guadalcanal}}
{{Campaignbox Solomons}}

The '''Battle of Mount Austen, the Galloping Horse, and the Sea Horse''', part of which is sometimes called the '''Battle of the Gifu''', took place from 15 December 1942 to 23 January 1943 and was primarily an [[Engagement (military)|engagement]] between United States and [[Empire of Japan|Imperial Japanese]] forces in the hills near the [[Matanikau River]] area on [[Guadalcanal]] during the [[Guadalcanal campaign]]. The U.S. forces were under the overall command of Major General [[Alexander Patch]] and the Japanese forces were under the overall command of Lieutenant General [[Harukichi Hyakutake]].

In the battle, U.S. [[United States Army|soldiers]] and [[United States Marine Corps|Marines]], assisted by native [[Solomon Islands|Solomon Islanders]], attacked [[Imperial Japanese Army]] forces defending well-fortified and entrenched positions on several hills and ridges. The most prominent hills were called [[Mount Austen]], the Galloping Horse, and the Sea Horse by the Americans. The U.S. was attempting to destroy the Japanese forces on Guadalcanal, and the Japanese were trying to hold their defensive positions until reinforcements could arrive.

Both sides experienced extreme difficulties in fighting in the thick jungles and tropical environment of the battle area. Many of the American troops were also involved in their first combat operations. The Japanese were mostly cut off from resupply and suffered greatly from malnourishment and lack of medical care. After some difficulty, the U.S. succeeded in taking Mount Austen, in the process reducing a strongly defended position called the Gifu, as well as the Galloping Horse and the Sea Horse. In the meantime, the Japanese decided to abandon Guadalcanal and withdrew to the west coast of the island. From there most of the surviving Japanese troops [[Operation Ke|were successfully evacuated]] during the first week of February 1943.

==Background==

===Guadalcanal campaign===
Eight months after the beginning of the [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Pacific War]], on 7&nbsp;August 1942 [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] forces (primarily U.S.) landed on Guadalcanal, [[Tulagi]], and [[Florida Islands]] in the [[Solomon Islands]]. The landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as [[Military base|bases]] for threatening the [[materiel|supply]] routes between the U.S. and Australia, and to secure the islands as starting points for a [[Military campaign|campaign]] with the eventual goal of isolating the major Japanese base at [[Rabaul]] while also supporting the Allied [[New Guinea campaign]]. The landings initiated the six-month-long [[Guadalcanal campaign]].<ref>Hogue, pp. 235–236.</ref>

The Japanese were taken by surprise. By nightfall on 8&nbsp;August, the 11,000 Allied troops—primarily from the [[1st Marine Division]] of the [[United States Marine Corps]] under the command of Lieutenant General [[Alexander Vandegrift]]—[[Battle of Tulagi and Gavutu–Tanambogo|secured Tulagi]] and nearby small islands as well as the Japanese airfield under construction at [[Lunga Point]] on Guadalcanal. The Allies later renamed the airfield [[Henderson Field (Guadalcanal)|Henderson Field]]. Allied aircraft operating out of Henderson were called the "[[Cactus Air Force]]" (CAF) after the Allied code name for Guadalcanal. To protect the airfield, the U.S. Marines established a perimeter defense around Lunga Point. Additional reinforcements over the next two months increased the number of U.S. troops at Lunga Point on Guadalcanal to more than 20,000.<ref>Morison, pp. 14–15; Miller, p. 143; Frank, p. 338; and Shaw, p. 18.</ref>
[[File:Map of Solomons area in 1942.png|thumb|upright=1.3|left|The Solomon Islands. "The Slot" ([[New Georgia Sound]]) runs down the center of the islands, from Bougainville and the Shortlands (center) to Guadalcanal (lower right). Rabaul on [[New Britain]] is at the upper center.]]

In response to the Allied landings on Guadalcanal, the Japanese [[Imperial General Headquarters]] assigned the [[Imperial Japanese Army]]'s [[Seventeenth Army (Japan)|17th Army]]—a [[corps]]-sized command based at Rabaul and under the command of Lieutenant General [[Harukichi Hyakutake]]—with the task of retaking Guadalcanal. Units of the 17th Army began to arrive on Guadalcanal on 19 August to drive Allied forces from the island.<ref>Griffith, pp. 96–99; Dull, p. 225; Miller, pp. 137–138.</ref>

Because of the threat by CAF aircraft based at Henderson Field, the Japanese were unable to use large, slow transport ships to deliver troops and supplies to the island. Instead, the Japanese used warships based at Rabaul and the [[Shortland Islands]] to carry their forces to Guadalcanal. The Japanese warships—mainly [[light cruiser]]s or [[destroyer]]s from the [[IJN 8th Fleet|Eighth Fleet]] under the command of [[Vice Admiral]] [[Gunichi Mikawa]]—were usually able to make the round trip down "[[New Georgia Sound#WWII—The Slot|The Slot]]" to Guadalcanal and back in a single night, thereby minimizing their exposure to CAF air attack. Delivering the troops in this manner, however, prevented most of the soldiers' heavy equipment and supplies, such as heavy artillery, vehicles, and much food and ammunition, from being carried to Guadalcanal with them. These high-speed warship runs to Guadalcanal occurred throughout the campaign and were later called the "[[Tokyo Express]]" by the Allies and "Rat Transportation" by the Japanese.<ref>Frank, pp. 202, 210–211.</ref>

Using forces delivered to Guadalcanal in this manner, the Japanese tried three times to retake Henderson Field, but they were defeated each time. First, a reinforced battalion from the 28th Infantry Regiment was defeated in the [[Battle of the Tenaru]] on 21 August. Next, the augmented 35th Infantry Brigade was defeated in the [[Battle of Edson's Ridge]] on 12–14 September. Finally, the [[2nd Division (Imperial Japanese Army)|2nd Infantry Division]] augmented by one regiment from the [[38th Infantry Division (Imperial Japanese Army)|38th Infantry Division]] was defeated with heavy losses in the [[Battle for Henderson Field]] on 23–26 October.<ref>Frank, pp. 141–158, 218–246, 337–367.</ref>
[[File:GuadMapAug7.jpg|thumb|right|Guadalcanal. Lunga Point and Mount Austen are at the upper-center-left of the map.]]

Throughout the campaign, the Japanese used Mount Austen (called Bear Height by the Japanese and Mount Mambulu by the local Solomon Islanders), west of the [[Lunga River (Guadalcanal)|Lunga River]] and about {{convert|6|mi|km|abbr=on}} southwest of Henderson Field, to observe the American defenses around Lunga Point. Emplaced artillery on Mount Austen delivered harassing fire on Henderson Field. The hill was also used as a defensive point to protect their positions around the upper Matanikau valley as well as to protect the Maruyama Road, which was a trail used by the Japanese to move men and supplies into the interior of the island. Mount Austen—with a summit of {{convert|1514|ft|m|abbr=on}}—was not a single peak but a mixed ridgeline of rocky exposed and jungle-covered ridges and hilltops. After the defeat in the Battle for Henderson Field, the Army Section of Imperial General Headquarters directed Hyakutake to increase the numbers of troops and artillery emplaced on the ridgeline to help prepare for the next planned attack on the Americans. Hyakutake directed some of the units that were retreating from the Henderson Field battle area to fortify Mount Austen and nearby hilltops. The forces deployed to Mount Austen included the 124th Infantry Regiment under Colonel [[Akinosuka Oka]] and several artillery units. Later, surviving troops from the 230th Infantry Regiment—which had taken heavy losses during the [[Koli Point action]] and [[Carlson's patrol|subsequent retreat]]—joined Oka's forces around Mount Austen.<ref>Frank, pp. 406–407, 411, 529; Miller, pp. 233–237; Jersey, pp. 344, 356, 360–362; Hough, pp. 363–364. The 8th Company, 230th Regiment took up positions near Mount Austen's summit. The 3rd Company, 10th Mountain Artillery under Captain Kyohtaroh Oishi with two 75mm [[Type 41 75 mm Mountain Gun|Type 41]] mountain guns was located on Hill 89. Nearby were several more Type&nbsp;41 guns and crews from the 228th Infantry Howitzer Company. All were short of ammunition.</ref>

===Reinforcement and resupply===
On 5, 7, and 8 November, Tokyo Express missions landed most of the 38th Division's 228th Infantry Regiment and the 1st Battalion, 229th Infantry Regiment on Guadalcanal. On 10 November, Japanese destroyers landed Lieutenant General [[Tadayoshi Sano]]—commander of the 38th Infantry Division—plus his staff and 600 more troops from the 38th. Hyakutake used the newly arrived troops to help stop [[Matanikau Offensive|an American attack]] west of the Matanikau from 8–11 November, then sent the 228th and 229th Regiment's units on 11 November to reinforce Oka's forces. Japanese [[Major General]] [[Takeo Itō]]—commander of the 38th Division's Infantry Group—later took command of the defenses around Mount Austen.<ref>Frank, pp. 421–425, 495; Miller, pp. 204, 228, 237; Jersey, pp. 303–304, 307, 361; Hough, pp. 363–364. At this time, Ito commanded about 1,000 troops of the 124th and 228th Infantry Regiments and supporting units on an inland line extending from Mount Austen to a point about {{convert|3000|yd|m|abbr=on}} west. Of this force, Maj. Takeyosho Inagaki with the 2d Battalion, 228th Infantry, occupied the northeast slopes of Mount Austen. Colonel Oka, with part of the 124th Infantry and other units, held the center of the line between Mount Austen and the Matanikau, while Col. Masaichi Suemura commanded the 1st and 3d Battalions of the 228th Infantry on the high ground west of the Matanikau. The 228th Regiment was commanded by Colonel Sadashichi Doi. Doi was later killed on an unknown date by American artillery fire. Suemura may have taken command of the 228th after Doi's death (Jersey, pp. 303, 344, 368). The 229th and 230th Regiment's units were apparently scattered at various places among the Japanese positions.</ref>

An attempt by the Japanese to deliver the rest of the 38th Division and its heavy equipment failed during the [[Naval Battle of Guadalcanal]] on 12–15 November. Only 2,000–3,000 of the remaining 7,000 troops from the division reached the island; most of their supplies, ammunition, and equipment were lost. Because of this failure, the Japanese canceled their next planned attempt to recapture Henderson Field.<ref>Frank, pp. 428–492.</ref>

As December began, the Japanese experienced considerable difficulty in keeping their troops on Guadalcanal resupplied because of [[Battle of Tassafaronga|Allied air and naval attacks]] on the Japanese supply chain of ships and bases. The few supplies delivered to the island were not enough to sustain Japanese troops, who by 7&nbsp;December were losing about 50&nbsp;men each day from malnutrition, disease, and Allied ground or air attacks. The Japanese had delivered almost 30,000 army troops to Guadalcanal since the campaign began, but by December only about 20,000 were still alive, with about 12,000 more or less fit for combat duty.<ref>Frank, pp. 493–527; Hough, pp. 364–365.</ref> On 12 December, the Japanese Navy proposed that Guadalcanal be abandoned. Despite opposition from Japanese Army leaders who still hoped that Guadalcanal could eventually be retaken, Imperial General Headquarters, with approval from Emperor [[Hirohito]] on 31 December, agreed to the evacuation of all Japanese forces from the island and establishment of a new line of defense for the Solomons on [[New Georgia]]. The Japanese titled the evacuation effort of their forces from Guadalcanal ''[[Operation Ke]]'' (ケ号作戦) and planned to execute the operation beginning on 14 January 1943.<ref>Dull, pp. 261, 268; Miller, pp. 336–338; Griffith, pp. 268–269.</ref>
[[File:GuadPatch.jpg|thumb|left|U.S. Army Major General [[Alexander Patch]] (foreground) observes the landing of troops and supplies on Guadalcanal on 8 December.]]

In the meantime, the U.S. continued to deliver additional troops to Guadalcanal. The three infantry regiments of the U.S. Army's [[Americal Division]], the [[164th Infantry Regiment (United States)|164th]], the [[182nd Infantry Regiment (United States)|182nd]] and the [[132nd Infantry Regiment (United States)|132nd]], were delivered to Guadalcanal on 13 October, 12 November, and 8&nbsp;December, respectively. In addition, the U.S. Army's independent 147th Infantry Regiment plus the [[2nd Marine Division]]'s [[8th Marine Regiment]] landed on 4&nbsp;November. The reinforcements also included additional artillery, construction, aviation, naval, and support units.<ref>Frank, pp. 247–252, 293, 417–420, 430–431, 521; Griffith, p. 156; Miller, pp. 143, 173–177, 183, 189; Jersey, pp. 304–305, 345–346; Hough, p. 360. The Americal Division infantry regiments were [[National Guard of the United States|national guard]] units. The 164th was from [[North Dakota]], the 182nd from [[Massachusetts]], and the 132nd from [[Illinois]]. The 147th had previously been part of the [[37th Infantry Division (United States)|37th Infantry Division]].</ref>

On 9 December, U.S. Army Major General [[Alexander Patch]]—commanding general of the Americal Division—succeeded Vandegrift as commander of Allied forces on Guadalcanal and Tulagi. That same day, the [[5th Marine Regiment]] departed the island, followed by the rest of the 1st Marine Division by the end of the month. Patch was ordered to eliminate all Japanese forces remaining on Guadalcanal. Patch told his superior—[[Millard Harmon]], who commanded all U.S. Army forces in the South Pacific—that he needed more troops to accomplish his mission. In response, Harmon ordered the [[25th Infantry Division (United States)|25th Infantry Division]], which was in the process of relocating from Hawaii to the [[South Pacific Area]], to ship directly to Guadalcanal. The 25th's units would arrive at Guadalcanal in stages during the last two weeks of December and the first week of January 1943. In addition, the rest of the 2nd Marine Division's units—including the [[6th Marine Regiment]]—were ordered to Guadalcanal during the same time period. By 7&nbsp;January, American forces on Guadalcanal would total just over 50,000 men.<ref>Miller, pp. 213–219; Frank, pp. 521–522, 529; Hough, pp. 359–360; Hough, pp. 360–362; Shaw, pp. 46–47; Zimmerman, pp. 156–157, 164; Jersey, pp. 363, 365; Griffith, pp. 257–259, 270. During its time on Guadalcanal, the 1st Marine Division suffered 650 killed, 31 missing, 1,278 injured, and 8,580 who contracted some type of disease, mainly [[malaria]]. The [[2nd Marine Regiment (United States)|2nd Marine Regiment]] had arrived at Guadalcanal with most of the 1st Marine Division, but remained behind to rejoin its parent unit, the 2nd Marine Division. The U.S. Army's 25th Infantry Division's 35th Regiment arrived at Guadalcanal on 17 December, the 27th Regiment on 1&nbsp;January, and the 161st Regiment on 4&nbsp;January. The 2nd Marine Division's headquarters units, the 6th Marine Regiment, and various Marine weapons and support units also arrived on 4&nbsp;and 6&nbsp;January. U.S. Major General John Marston, commander of the 2nd Marine Division, remained in New Zealand because he was superior in time in rank to Patch. Instead, Brigadier General Alphonse De Carre commanded the 2nd Marine Division on Guadalcanal. The total number of Marines on Guadalcanal and Tulagi on 6&nbsp;January 1943 was 18,383.</ref>

==Battles==

===First Battle of Mount Austen===
On 12 December 1942, a small group of Japanese soldiers from the 38th Field Engineer Regiment successfully infiltrated the American lines from the south, destroying a fighter aircraft and a fuel truck on Henderson Field before escaping back to friendly lines. Two days later, a U.S. Army patrol from the 132nd Infantry Regiment skirmished with a group of Japanese on the eastern slopes of Mount Austen. On 15 December, in yet another night infiltration raid onto Henderson Field, a Lieutenant Ono led four men equipped with [[picric acid]] blocks past American sentry positions, destroying several [[Bell P-39 Airacobra|P-39 Airacobra]] [[Fighter aircraft|fighters]].<ref>George, pp.&nbsp;46–47</ref> Throughout the Guadalcanal campaign, Japanese forces would continue night infiltration tactics against U.S. forces, causing few American casualties.<ref>George, pp.&nbsp;46–47, 342</ref>

General Patch, however, was convinced that these events illustrated an unacceptable risk to Henderson Field by Japanese troops stationed on and around nearby Mount Austen. Thus, on 16 December, in preparation for a planned general offensive to try to destroy all Japanese forces remaining on Guadalcanal, Patch elected to first secure the Mount Austen area. He therefore ordered the 132nd Infantry Regiment to immediately seize the objective. While the 132nd Infantry Regiment had little modern combat experience aside from jungle skirmishes and patrols, it was proud of its combat history, having participated in both the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] and [[World War I]], and its young reserve officers and [[Non-commissioned officer|non-commissioned officers]] considered themselves skilled in rifle and machine-gun tactics and marksmanship.<ref>Frank, p. 529; Miller, pp. 231–237; Jersey, pp. 350–351; Anderson; Hough, pp. 363–364; Griffith, pp. 263–265; George, pp.&nbsp;18–20.</ref>
[[File:GuadGifuDec18-27.gif|thumb|right|Map of the First Battle of Mount Austen]]

The 132nd's commander—Colonel Leroy E. Nelson—directed his 3rd Battalion to lead the American assault on the first of several hills, followed by the regiment's 1st Battalion. Artillery support was provided by [[M101 howitzer|105 mm howitzers]] from the U.S. Army's 246th Field Artillery Battalion and the [[M116 howitzer|75 mm pack howitzers]] of the [[2nd Battalion, 10th Marines]].<ref>Miller, pp. 237–238; Frank, p. 530; Jersey, pp. 350–351. The 132nd's 1st Battalion was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Earl F. Ripstra.</ref>

The exposed hills making up the Mount Austen complex were arbitrarily numbered by the Americans for reference purposes (see map at right). On 17 December, Nelson's 3rd Battalion—commanded by Lieutenant Colonel William C. Wright—advanced south of Hill 35 and began to climb toward Mount Austen's summit near Hills 20 and 21. In order to achieve its timetable set by the division commander, the battalion was forced to leave behind many of its support weapons, such as heavy mortars and machine guns, and to take only limited quantities of ammunition and supplies, all of which had to be hand-carried along hacked-out paths through thick jungle. At 09:30 on 18 December, as Wright's lead elements approached, Japanese defenders pinned down the Americans with machine-gun and rifle fire. Exhausted and dehydrated by their trek through the thick jungle, Wright's troops—unable to deploy quickly out of column formation—made no headway against the Japanese defenses.<ref>Frank, p. 530; Miller, pp. 238–239; Griffith, p. 265.</ref>

The next morning, after an artillery barrage and air strike from the CAF, Wright went forward with several artillery observers to investigate the terrain in front of his forces. Using concealed fire lanes, a Japanese machine-gun team killed Wright with a burst of fire at 09:30. Wright's second in command, Major Louis Franco, was unable to get forward and take command until late in the day, preventing the battalion from continuing the attack. At the same time, Japanese riflemen infiltrated the American positions and effectively harassed the command posts of both the 3rd and 1st Battalions as well as the column of heavily loaded American supply and engineer parties on the hacked-out jungle trail linking the battalions with the Lunga perimeter. Both U.S. battalions dug in for the night while artillery bombarded the Japanese positions.<ref>Miller, pp. 239–240; Frank, pp. 530–531; Jersey, p. 354; Zimmerman, p. 158.</ref>

[[File:GuadGifuJapaneseBunker.jpg|thumb|left|One of the Japanese pillboxes that made up the Gifu position]]
Between 20 and 23 December, the Japanese apparently withdrew from the area, as aggressive U.S. Army patrols encountered no more enemy in the area of Hills 20 and 21 and further to the south. Nelson ordered the two battalions to move west to Hill 31 and then attack south towards Hill 27. On 24 December, the 3rd Battalion was halted on the slopes of Hill 31 by intense machine-gun fire from well-concealed positions.<ref>Miller, pp. 237, 240–244; Frank, pp. 531, 749; Rottman, p. 64; Jersey, p. 355.</ref>

Facing the Americans was the most strongly fortified Japanese position on Guadalcanal, nicknamed the ''Gifu'' (after [[Gifu Prefecture]] in Japan) by the Japanese. The Gifu position sat between the summits of Mount Austen and Hills 27 and 31 and consisted of a {{convert|1500|yd|m|abbr=on}} line of 45–50 interconnected, mutually supporting, well-camouflaged [[Pillbox (military)|pillboxes]] dug into the ground and forming a horseshoe shape with the open end to the west. Only about {{convert|3|ft|m|abbr=on}} of each pillbox was above ground with walls and roofs, constructed from logs and dirt, up to {{convert|2|ft|m|abbr=on}} thick. Each pillbox contained one to two machine guns and several riflemen; some were sited underneath huge jungle trees. Each of these pillbox emplacements was sited to provide mutual support to the others. Numerous foxholes and trenches provided additional support and cover for additional riflemen and machine-gunners. Behind the pillboxes, the Japanese had sited 81&nbsp;mm and long-range [[Type 94 90 mm Infantry Mortar|90mm mortars]].<ref>George, pp.&nbsp;368–369: the Japanese 90 mm mortar was in effect a small field piece, firing a heavy projectile to ranges of up to 4000&nbsp;yards with extreme accuracy due to its especially stable mount.</ref> The Gifu was commanded by Major Takeyoshi Inagaki with around 800 men from the 2nd Battalion, 228th Regiment and the 2nd Battalion, 124th Infantry.<ref>Miller, pp. 237, 240–244; Frank, pp. 531, 749; Jersey, pp. 304, 344, 351–352, 360–362; Anderson. Jersey states that the Gifu was named by soldiers from the 230th Infantry Regiment who were from Gifu Prefecture, some units of which were helping defend the nearby Mount Austen area. The Gifu fortifications and layout had been designed by four experienced 17th Army fortification engineers, Lieutenant Colonel Makoto Hamada, Majors Shigemaichi Shida and Tsuneichi Shima, and Captain Masaru Tokuda. The position's personnel may have also included 28 [[Japanese Special Naval Landing Forces]] troops from the original Guadalcanal naval garrison. Inagaki's command post was located {{convert|400|yd|m}} northeast of Hill 27. The 2nd Company, 228th Machine-Gun Unit was also apparently assisting in the defense of the Gifu and nearby hills.</ref>

Between 25 and 29 December, the Japanese defenders prevented the Americans from making any headway in their attempt to overrun the Gifu position. While the U.S. 3rd Battalion—with artillery support—conducted frontal attacks against the position to pin the defenders, the U.S. 1st Battalion attempted to [[Flanking maneuver|flank]] the Gifu on the east. However, as the Japanese defenses were fully integrated, the flanking attempt was unsuccessful. By 29 December, U.S. losses had reached 53 killed, 129 wounded, and 131 sick,<ref>Frank, p. 532; Miller, pp. 244–246; Jersey, pp. 356–358; Griffith, p. 266.</ref> though morale remained high. Assisting the Americans in this battle were Fijian [[commando]]s led by officers and non-commissioned officers from the [[New Zealand Expeditionary Force]].<ref>''Shots Fired in Anger'', pp. 108, 112, 116–118: Second Lieutenant John George (no relation to Lieutenant Colonel Alexander M. George) was with the 2nd Battalion which later took Hill 27. After a tour of the 132nd's lines and interviews with officers and men, he observed that although tired and low on rifle ammunition and grenades, the troops remained alert and eager for additional supplies to resume the battle.</ref>
[[File:GuadGifuJan2.gif|thumb|right|U.S. actions around the Gifu on 2&nbsp;January]]

On 2 January, Nelson added his 2nd Battalion—commanded by Lieutenant Colonel George F. Ferry—to the offensive and sent them on a march around the Gifu toward Hill 27. The battalion reached the lower slopes of the hill by 16:00 without meeting serious resistance from the Japanese. This same day, Nelson—who was physically and mentally exhausted and may have been suffering from malaria—was replaced as commander of the 132nd by Lieutenant Colonel Alexander M. George.<ref name="Frank, p p. 266">Frank, pp. 532–533, 750; Miller, pp. 237–238, 246–249; Jersey, p. 359; Griffith, p. 266</ref> Sources are unclear whether he requested his own relief or was ordered to relinquish command.<ref name="Frank, p p. 266"/>

The next day, elements of the 132nd's 2nd Battalion occupied the summit of Hill 27, surprised and killed a Japanese 75&nbsp;mm artillery crew, and successfully repulsed, with help from heavy artillery fire, six Japanese counterattacks on their positions. By this time, the soldiers atop Hill 27 were running extremely short of ammunition and grenades, with Japanese forces returning ten shots to each one fired by the Americans, and medical supplies were exhausted.<ref>George, pp. 102, 106–108</ref> The 2nd's efforts to improve its position were made more difficult by the hard coral underneath the hill's sod, which made the digging of foxholes difficult. The remainder of the 2nd Battalion, carrying ammunition, food, and medical supplies, reached Hill 27 and joined the battle, where they soon gained combat superiority over the attacking Japanese.<ref>George, pp. 94, 110–112.</ref> At the same time, with the infusion of new leadership by Lieutenant Colonel George, the 1st and 3rd Battalions attacked and pushed a short way into the Gifu, killing 25 Japanese in the process, then closed the gaps between their units and consolidated their positions, while killing many of the Japanese defenders. One officer from the 2nd Battalion, who had brought his personal sniper rifle to the battle, witnessed the final disintegration of Japanese units attacking Hill 27 with a final flurry of suicidal frontal charges.<ref>George, p.&nbsp;120–127.</ref> The Japanese soldiers in the Gifu, who had apparently not been resupplied or replenished during the battle, consumed their last remaining food rations on 1&nbsp;January.<ref>Miller, pp. 244, 249–252; Frank, pp. 533–534.</ref>

Since the beginning of its offensive on Mount Austen, the 132nd had lost 115 killed and 272 wounded. The relatively high number of combat deaths were caused in part by wound infections in the tropical conditions and inability to evacuate men wounded in the early stages of the operation.<ref>George, p. 106: The 'aid station' on Hill 27 consisted of one doctor, two aid men, two stretchers, half a dozen blankets, and a small kit of medicine and bandages.</ref> Even after intervention by the 2nd Battalion, wounded men continued to die, unable to withstand the arduous and slippery portage back down improvised jungle trails on a stretcher carried by two men. These losses, plus the effects of tropical diseases, heat, and combat exhaustion, temporarily rendered the 132nd's 1st and 3rd Battalions incapable of further offensive action. Thus, on 4&nbsp;January, the 1st and 3rd Battalions were ordered to dig in and hold positions surrounding the Gifu on the north, east, and south.<ref>Miller, pp. 244, 249–252; Frank, pp. 533–534; Jersey, pp. 360, 363.</ref>

Reviewing the first Mount Austen offensive, Marine officer and historian [[Samuel B. Griffith]] concludes, "As the thoroughly butchered Mount Austen operation dragged on into January, it became apparent that both Major General Patch and his assistant Division commander [Brigadier General [[Edmund Sebree]]] had much to unlearn, and perhaps even more to learn."<ref>Griffith, p. 267.</ref> However, while Patch's decision to attack Mount Austen was criticized, one participant noted the difficulties faced by the 132nd Regiment and its commanders, including the terrain, limited equipment (light mortars and machine guns with limited ammunition supply, no flamethrowers or pole charges), and the necessity of assaulting thoroughly integrated, prepared, and roofed-over Japanese defenses, which resisted direct hits by 75&nbsp;mm and in some cases 105&nbsp;mm shells.<ref>George, pp.&nbsp;315–322: In addition to being roofed-over and camouflaged, many of the Japanese positions were protected from direct assault by supporting fires from riflemen and light machine guns, and immune to all but direct hits by delayed-action shells from large-caliber guns or howitzers. Even the latter method was ineffective against some Japanese positions which were sited behind or underneath huge jungle trees.</ref> For its part, once the 132nd was able to treat its wounded, morale remained high in the newly blooded regiment, which played a significant role in later combat operations on Guadalcanal.<ref>George, pp. 106, 112, 116–117, 120–127</ref> The 2nd Battalion, with just 27 killed, was immediately assigned to further offensive combat operations.<ref>George, p. 131: "General Sebree told us our success in the Mount Austen (Hill 27) battle had been taken into account in the selection [of the 2nd Battalion for the next offensive]."</ref>

Losses among the Gifu defenders are unknown but were estimated by one 2nd Battalion officer as of 9&nbsp;January 1943 at 500 killed and wounded; most of the latter would later die of their wounds when combined with illness and starvation.<ref>George, pp. 128, 162: Nearly all of the Japanese soldiers wounded in the Mount Austen battle, starving and left without medical care, later died; for weeks afterwards, their unburied or half-interred bodies were encountered by U.S. troops.</ref> A Japanese officer's recovered diary stated that the Japanese had suffered heavy casualties. Japanese prisoners captured in later operations referred to the combat at Hills 27 and 31 as ''The Battle of the Mountain of Blood''.<ref>George, p. 128</ref>

===Arrival of American reinforcements===
On 2 January, with the arrival of the U.S. Army's 25th Division and the rest of the U.S. Marine 2nd Division, all of the American units on Guadalcanal and Tulagi were together designated as the [[XIV Corps (United States)|XIV Corps]] with Patch in command. Sebree took over as commander of the Americal Division. On 5&nbsp;January, Patch issued his plan to begin operations to clear Guadalcanal of Japanese forces. The 2nd Marine Division was to push westward from the Matanikau River along the coast while the 25th Division was to finish clearing Mount Austen and to secure the hilltops and ridges located around the inland forks of the Matanikau. The Americal Division and the [[147th Infantry Regiment (United States)|147th Infantry Regiment]] would guard the Lunga perimeter.<ref>Frank, pp. 550–552; Miller, pp. 254–255; Anderson; Hough, pp. 362, 366; Shaw, p. 49; Zimmerman, p. 159; Jersey, p. 365; Griffith, p. 270.</ref>
[[File:GuadMatanikauJanPlan.gif|thumb|left|Map of the Matanikau River area showing Japanese (red) and American (blue) positions and the American plan of attack along the coast and into the inland hills]]

The deep river ravines of the Matanikau's upper forks naturally divided the U.S. 25th Division's operations area into three distinct areas, with one main terrain feature dominating each area. East of the Matanikau was Mount Austen. In the wedge between the southeast and southwest forks of the Matanikau Hills 44 and 43 together formed a terrain feature that the Americans called the "Sea Horse", because of its shape when viewed from above. Between the Matanikau's southwest and northwest forks was a much larger hill mass labelled, also because of its shape, the "Galloping Horse".<ref>Frank, p. 552; Miller, pp. 257, 281.</ref>

Major General [[J. Lawton Collins]]—commander of the 25th Division—assigned his [[35th Infantry Regiment (United States)|35th Infantry Regiment]] to clear the Gifu, secure the rest of Mount Austen, and to capture the Sea Horse. He ordered the [[27th Infantry Regiment (United States)|27th Infantry Regiment]] to seize the Galloping Horse from the north. The 35th and the 27th were then to link up on Hill 53 (the Galloping Horse's "Head") to finish clearing the nearby hills and ridges. Collins placed his [[161st Infantry Regiment (United States)|161st Infantry Regiment]] in reserve. Ammunition and supplies for the attacking troops would be transported along rough jeep trails as far forward as possible and then carried the rest of the way by native Solomon Islanders.<ref>Frank, p. 552; Miller, pp. 255–257, 262; Anderson; Griffith, p. 271.</ref>

Having observed the arrival of the American reinforcements to the island, the Japanese were expecting the offensive. Hyakutake ordered the units on the hilltops around the Matanikau and in the Gifu to hold in place in their prepared positions. The Japanese hoped that as the Americans surrounded and intermingled with the Japanese defensive pockets that the close quarters fighting would prevent the Americans from employing their superior firepower in artillery and close air support. At night, the Japanese planned to infiltrate the American rear areas and interdict their supply lines to prevent the American assault forces from receiving sufficient ammunition and provisions to continue their attacks. The Japanese hoped to delay the Americans long enough for more reinforcements to arrive from Rabaul or elsewhere.<ref>Frank, p. 553.</ref>

===Galloping Horse===
[[File:GuadMatanikauGHJan10.gif|thumb|right|Map of the initial American attacks on the Galloping Horse, 10 January]]
[[File:GuadMatanikauGHJan12-13.gif|thumb|right|Map of the American attacks on the Galloping Horse, 12–13 January]]

Viewed from overhead with north upward, the Galloping Horse ridge appeared upside down, with Hills 54 and 55 forming the horse's rear legs, and Hill 57 forming the front legs. From east to west, Hills 50, 51, and 52 formed the horse's body with the {{convert|900|ft|m|abbr=on}} high Hill 53 at the head. Colonel William A. McCulloch—commander of the 27th Regiment—ordered his 1st Battalion to attack Hill 57 and his 3rd Battalion to assault Hills 51 and 52 from Hill 54, which was already in American hands. Defending the Galloping Horse and the nearby fork of the Matanikau were 600 Japanese soldiers from the 3rd Battalion, 228th Infantry Regiment under Major Haruka Nishiyama.<ref>Frank, pp. 553, 567; Rottman, p. 64; Miller, pp. 261–262; Jersey, pp. 304, 344–345, 356; Anderson. Nishiyama's troops also manned the nearby Hills 49 (called ''Inu'' or "Dog" by the Japanese) and 67 (called ''Saru'' or "Monkey" by the Japanese).</ref>

The American attack commenced at 05:50 on 10 January with a [[bombardment]] by six battalions of artillery and airstrikes by 24 CAF aircraft on suspected Japanese positions in the valley between Hill 57 and the jumping-off point for the 1st Battalion. Beginning their advance at 07:30, the 1st Battalion successfully gained the summit of Hill 57 by 11:40 against light resistance.<ref>Frank, pp. 553–554; Miller, pp. 262–265; Griffith, p. 274.</ref>

From Hill 54, the 3rd Battalion's attack route was in the open and dominated by the high ground of Hills 52 and 53. At 06:35, the battalion commenced its assault and occupied Hill 51 without resistance. Continuing its advance, the battalion was stopped by heavy Japanese machine-gun fire {{convert|200|yd|m|abbr=on}} short of Hill 52's summit. After an airstrike by six CAF aircraft on Hill 52 and an artillery bombardment, the 3rd Battalion resumed their attack and successfully captured the summit by 16:25, destroying six machine gun positions and killing about 30 Japanese on the hill.<ref>Frank, p. 554; Miller, pp. 265–270.</ref>

At 09:00 on 11 January, the 3rd Battalion began its attack on Hill 53. The Japanese quickly stopped the American advance with machine-gun and mortar fire. The Americans—who had not received adequate replenishment in water—began to suffer extensive heat casualties. In one platoon, only ten men remained conscious by the afternoon.<ref>Frank, pp. 554–555; Miller, pp. 270–272; Griffith, pp. 274–275.</ref>

The next day, the 27th's 2nd Battalion took over the assault on Hill 53. Advancing up the hill, the Americans were stopped short of Hill 53's summit. During the night, Japanese infiltrators cut the telephone line between the 2nd Battalion and its regimental headquarters, affecting unit communications. On 13 January, the Americans renewed the attack but were again halted by heavy Japanese machine-gun and mortar fire.<ref>Frank, p. 555; Miller, pp. 272–275.</ref>

A knoll on the south edge of the ridge (the "horse's neck") leading to Hill 53 was the fulcrum of the Japanese defenses. The knoll contained several machine gun and mortar positions which had effectively held off the American attacks across the ridge. The 2nd Battalion's executive officer—Captain [[Charles W. Davis]]—volunteered to lead four other men against the knoll. Crawling on their bellies, Davis and his party crept to within {{convert|10|yd|m|abbr=on}} of the enemy position. The Japanese defenders threw two grenades at them, but the grenades failed to explode. Davis and his men threw eight grenades at the Japanese, destroying several of their positions. Davis then stood up, and while shooting his rifle, then pistol with one hand, waved his men forward with the other as he advanced further onto the knoll. Davis and his men then killed or chased away the rest of the Japanese on the knoll. Silhouetted against the sky during the action, Davis was visible to the Americans all up and down the ridge. Inspired by his actions, plus replenished with water by a sudden thunderstorm, the American troops "came to life" and quickly assaulted and captured Hill 53 by noon. The Americans counted the bodies of 170 Japanese soldiers on and around the Galloping Horse. The Americans suffered fewer than 100 killed.<ref>Frank, pp. 555–558; Miller, pp. 270, 275–276; Anderson; Jersey, pp. 367–368; Griffith, pp. 275–276.</ref>

Between 15 and 22 January, the 161st Infantry Regiment hunted the remainder of Nishiyama's battalion in the nearby gorge of the southwest Matanikau fork. In total, 400 Japanese were killed defending the Galloping Horse and surrounding area. Two hundred Japanese survivors, including Nishiyama, escaped to friendly lines on 19 January.<ref>Frank, pp. 555–558; Miller, pp. 270, 276–278. Exact American casualties from the Galloping Horse battle aren't recorded but the 27th Regiment lost a total of 74 killed and 226 wounded for the entire month of January 1943.</ref>

===Sea Horse===
The Sea Horse consisted of two hills, Hill 43 on the south with Hill 44 adjoining to the north.<ref>Frank, p. 562; Rottman, p. 64; Miller, pp. 281–283, 286; Jersey, pp. 360–361, 366–367. The Japanese 1st Battalion, 124th was commanded by Major Yukichi Kokusho until 2&nbsp;January when he was killed in action. Major Megumi Ishido then took command of the battalion. Some historians state that Kokusho was actually killed during the [[Battle of Edson's Ridge]] on 13–14 September 1942. Jersey records that assisting the 124th were elements of the 38th Engineer Regiment and 1st Battalion, 229th Regiment, plus a company from the 230th Regiment. Jersey, however, isn't clear as to where exactly these units were positioned, whether near the Gifu or closer to the Sea Horse. The 3rd Company, 38th Engineer Regiment in the Sea Horse area was commanded by Captain Kiyoshi Saito. The 2nd Company, 230th Regiment was commanded by Lieutenant Mano Tamotsu. The 1st Battalion, 229th Regiment was commanded by Major Tsuguto Tomoda after its original commander, Major Sugura Orita was wounded in action.</ref> Viewed from overhead with north upward, the Sea Horse ridge appeared upside down, with Hill 43 forming the seahorse's head and Hill 44 forming the abdomen. The American 35th Infantry Regiment, commanded by Colonel Robert B. McClure, was assigned to capture the Sea Horse and complete the reduction of the Gifu on Mount Austen. McClure assigned his 2nd Battalion to the assault on the Gifu and sent his 1st and 3rd Battalions on a long march through the jungle to attack the Sea Horse from the south. Defending the Sea Horse and nearby valleys were the Japanese 124th Regiment's 1st and 3rd Battalions, with Oka's command post located nearby. 
[[File:GuadSeahorseJan8-11.gif|thumb|left|The American march to and assault on the Sea Horse (left)]]

After taking a {{convert|7000|yd|m|abbr=on}} circuitous route through the jungle around Mount Austen, at 06:35 on 10 January, McClure's 3rd Battalion launched its attack on Hill 43. As the Americans closed on Hill 43 from the south, a group of Japanese soldiers near Oka's command post spotted the U.S. soldiers as they crossed a stream and attacked immediately, threatening the flank of the American column. Two American soldiers—[[William G. Fournier]] and [[Lewis Hall (soldier)|Lewis Hall]]—successfully repelled the Japanese attack with a machine gun but were killed in the process. Making progress against light resistance, the 3rd Battalion dug in for the night about {{convert|700|yd|m|abbr=on}} short of Hill 43's summit.<ref>Frank, pp. 562–563; Miller, pp. 281–283, 286–287; Anderson; Jersey, p. 366.</ref>

The next day, the 1st Battalion of the 35th was added to the attack, and the two units—with artillery support—drove through several Japanese machine-gun positions and took Hill 43 by early afternoon. Continuing on towards Hill 44 against light opposition, the Americans captured the rest of the Sea Horse by nightfall, cutting off Japanese forces in the Gifu. The native Solomon Islanders who had been man-packing supplies to the two American battalions during the attack were having difficulty delivering sufficient food and ammunition over the long trail between the Sea Horse and the Lunga perimeter. Thus, [[Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress|B-17 Flying Fortress]] [[heavy bomber]]s were used to air drop supplies to the American troops around the Sea Horse.<ref>Frank, pp. 562–563; Miller, pp. 281–283, 287–289; Anderson; Jersey, p. 367.</ref>

On 12 January, the two American battalions of the 35th continued their attack to the west toward the Galloping Horse but were stopped by a Japanese strongpoint on a narrow ridge about {{convert|600|yd|m|abbr=on}} west of their point of departure. After trying to flank the position for two days, the Americans were able to smash the strongpoint with mortar and artillery fire, killing 13 Japanese defenders, and they advanced to a ridge overlooking the southwest fork of the Matanikau by 15:00 on 15 January. That same day, Japanese survivors from the Sea Horse battle—including Oka and most of the 124th's headquarters staff section and the 1st Battalion—were able to slip past the American forces and reach friendly lines further west. The Americans counted 558 Japanese dead around the Sea Horse, mostly from the 124th's 3rd Battalion, and captured 17.<ref>Frank, pp. 562–563; Miller, pp. 289–290, 296; Jersey, pp. 361, 372. Miller states that the Japanese strongpoint was {{convert|150|yd|m|abbr=on}} west of the Sea Horse, not {{convert|600|yd|m|abbr=on}} as Frank claims. Jersey notes that the Japanese defenders of the ridge strongpoint may have been from the 3rd Battalion, 230th Regiment commanded by Major Ampei Onada. Jersey claims that Oka was killed during the Ke evacuation (Jersey, pp. 371–372).</ref>

===Second Mount Austen===
On 9 January, McClure's 2nd Battalion—commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Ernest Peters—replaced the three battalions from the 132nd Regiment and prepared to assault the Gifu. Over the next four days, the Americans tried to feel out the Japanese positions with patrols. At the same time, the Gifu defenders attempted to wear down the Americans with night infiltration attacks. By 13 January, the 2nd Battalion had lost 57 killed or wounded. The battle casualties plus malaria reduced the battalion to 75% of its effective strength by the next day. To assist the battalion, the 35th Regiment's anti-tank gun company personnel were attached to the battalion as infantry.<ref>Frank, pp. 563–564; Miller, pp. 290–294.</ref>
[[File:Guad25thWouded.jpg|thumb|left|An injured American soldier from the 35th Infantry Regiment is prepared for evacuation from the battle area on 15 January.]]

With the capture of the Sea Horse by the Americans, the Japanese in the Gifu were isolated from the rest of the 17th Army. In a last message over his field phone before the line was cut, Inagaki refused an order from Oka to abandon his position and attempt to infiltrate back to friendly lines, instead vowing that his command would "fight to the last". Inagaki apparently refused the order because to do so would have meant leaving his sick and injured men behind.<ref>Frank, p. 564; Miller, p. 296; Griffith, p. 278.</ref>

An American attack on the Gifu by the entire 2nd Battalion on 15 January was completely repulsed by the Japanese. In response, McClure relieved Peters of command on 16 January and replaced him with Major [[Stanley R. Larsen]]. Larsen decided to completely surround the Gifu and try to reduce it with a massive artillery bombardment on 17 January.<ref>Frank, pp. 564–565; Miller, pp. 295–298; Anderson; Jersey, pp. 367–369. Jersey says Peters was relieved for, "not implementing an order" (Jersey p. 367).</ref>

In the meantime, the Americans used a loudspeaker to broadcast a surrender appeal in Japanese to the Gifu's defenders. Only five Japanese soldiers responded. One of the five reported that his company actually gathered to discuss the appeal but decided not to surrender because they were too weak to carry their injured, non-ambulatory comrades with them to the American lines. Instead, they elected to perish together as a unit. One Japanese officer defending the Gifu wrote in his diary, "I heard the enemy talking in Japanese over a loud speaker. He is probably telling us to come out—what fools the enemy are. The Japanese Army will stick it out to the end. Position must be defended in all conditions with our lives."<ref>Frank, p. 565; Miller, pp. 298–299; Jersey, p. 369.</ref>

At 14:30 on 17 January, twelve [[M114 155 mm howitzer|155 mm]] and thirty-seven 105&nbsp;mm guns opened fire on the Gifu. Over the next one and a half hours, the American artillery fired 1,700 shells into an area about {{convert|1000|yd|m|abbr=on}} square. Because of the lateness of the hour, the Americans were unable to follow the barrage with an immediate attack but instead had to wait until the next day, which allowed the Japanese time to recover. On 18 January, the Americans attacked into the weaker west side of the Gifu, making some headway and destroying several Japanese pillboxes over the next two days until heavy rain stopped the attack on 20 January. That night, eleven Japanese were killed trying to escape from the Gifu.<ref>Frank, pp. 565–566; Miller, pp. 298–303. The U.S. artillery units involved included the 105-mm howitzers of the 88th Field Artillery Battalion, one 105-mm howitzer of the 8th, and the 155-mm howitzers of the 90th and 221st Field Artillery Battalions in addition to the 105-mm. howitzers of the 64th Field Artillery Battalion.</ref>
[[File:GuadGifuJan22-23.gif|thumb|right|Tank support cracks the Gifu for American forces]]

On 22 January, the Americans were able to move a [[Stuart tank|light tank]] up their supply trail to Mount Austen. The tank proved to be the decisive factor in the battle. At 10:20, the tank—protected by 16–18 riflemen—blasted three Japanese pillboxes and penetrated into the Gifu pocket. Proceeding onward, the tank completely traversed the Gifu and destroyed five more pillboxes, breaching a gap {{convert|200|yd|m|abbr=on}} wide in the Japanese line. The American infantry surged through the gap and took positions in the middle of the Gifu.<ref>Frank, p. 566; Miller p. 303; Anderson; Jersey, p. 370; Gilbert, pp. 50–51. The tank was commanded by Captain Theodore Deese and crewed by men from the 25th Division Reconnaissance Troop. Three tanks, formerly belonging to Marine units on Guadalcanal, actually moved up to Mount Austen, but two were disabled in the process and were unable to participate in the attack.</ref>

That night around 02:30 on 23 January, apparently realizing the battle was lost, Inagaki led his staff and most of the remaining survivors of his command—about 100 men—in a final charge on the Americans. In the charge, Inagaki and the remainder of his troops were killed almost to the last man. At sunrise, the Americans secured the rest of the Gifu. Sixty-four men from the American 2nd Battalion, 35th Infantry were killed during the assaults on the Gifu between 9&nbsp;and 23 January, bringing the total number of Americans killed taking Mount Austen to 175. The Americans counted the bodies of 431 Japanese in the remains of the Gifu's fortifications and 87 elsewhere around Mount Austen. Total Japanese losses in the Sea Horse and both Mount Austen battles were probably between 1,100 and 1,500 men.<ref>Frank, pp. 566–567; Miller, pp. 303–305; Anderson; Jersey, p. 371. Also killed in the final Japanese charge was Major Nishihata, commander of the 2nd Battalion, 124th Infantry Regiment.</ref>

===Coastal drive===
At the same time that the U.S. Army offensive was taking place in the hills around the upper Matanikau, the U.S. 2nd Marine Division—under the command of Brigadier General [[Alphonse DeCarre]]—was attacking along the north coast of Guadalcanal. Facing the Marines in the hills and ravines south of Point Cruz were the remains of the Japanese 2nd Infantry Division, commanded by Lieutenant General [[Masao Maruyama (Japanese Army officer)|Masao Maruyama]], plus the 1st Battalion, 228th Infantry Regiment from the 38th Infantry Division under Major Kikuo Hayakawa.<ref>Frank, p. 556; Miller, pp. 278–279; Jersey, pp. 304, 344–345, 356, 361; Hough, pp. 363–364. Jersey states that the 228th Regiment's command post was also located in this area but doesn't say if this post included Major General Takeo Ito or just the regimental commander, Doi and/or Suemura. The 228th's 1st Battalion was located on Hills 75, 78, and 80, called ''Sakai Dai'' or "Skyline Ridge" by the Japanese.</ref>
[[File:GuadMatanikauJan13-18.gif|thumb|left|U.S. Marine drive along the coast]]

On 13 January, the [[2nd Marine Regiment|2nd]] and [[8th Marine Regiment|8th]] Marine regiments began their offensive with the 8th Marines attacking along the coast and the 2nd Marines advancing further inland. The Japanese were pushed back in some places but held in others, with heavy fighting occurring at several locations in the hills and ravines near the coast. On 14 January, the 2nd Marines were relieved by the [[6th Marine Regiment]] under the command of Colonel [[Gilder D. Jackson Jr.|Gilder D. Jackson]].<ref>Frank, pp. 556–557; Miller, pp. 278–279; Hough, p. 365; Shaw, pp. 49–50; Zimmerman, pp. 159–160, 164; Jersey, pp. 364, 366. The 6th Marines were commanded by Colonel Gilder D. Jackson.</ref>

The Marines renewed the offensive on 15 January. The Japanese stymied the 8th Marines' advance along the coast. Inland, however, the 6th Marines were able to successfully advance about {{convert|1500|yd|m|abbr=on}} and threatened the flank of the Japanese forces emplaced in front of the 8th Marines. At 17:00, Maruyama ordered his troops to retreat to a pre-coordinated line about {{convert|1300|yd|m|abbr=on}} to the west.<ref>Frank, p. 557; Miller, p. 279; Hough pp. 365–366; Jersey, pp. 364–365. The Marines used a flamethrower, captured earlier from the Japanese, in combat for the first time this day, destroying three Japanese emplacements.</ref>

Early on 16 January, as many of Maruyama's men attempted to comply with the order to retreat, the 6th Marines turned and drove to the coast, trapping most of Maruyama's 4th and 16th Regiments between themselves and the 8th Marines. By 14:00 on 17 January, the Marines had destroyed the Japanese forces trapped in the pocket, killing 643 and capturing two.<ref>Frank, pp. 557–558; Miller, p. 279; Hough, p. 367; Jersey, p. 369.</ref>

==Aftermath==
On 15 January, an IJA representative from Rabaul reached Guadalcanal on a Tokyo Express mission and informed Hyakutake of the decision to withdraw Japanese forces from the island. Grudgingly accepting the order, the 17th Army staff communicated the [[Operation Ke|''Ke'' evacuation plan]] to their forces on 18 January. The plan directed the 38th Division to disengage and withdraw towards [[Cape Esperance]] on the western end of Guadalcanal beginning on 20 January. The 38th's retirement would be covered by the 2nd Division and other units, which would then follow the 38th westward. Any troops unable to move were encouraged to kill themselves to "uphold the honor of the Imperial Army". From Cape Esperance the Japanese navy planned to evacuate the army forces over the last few days of January and first week of February with a projected completion date of the evacuation of 10 February.<ref>Frank, pp. 541, 562; Miller, p. 349; Jersey, p. 368; Griffith, pp. 279–284.</ref>
[[File:GuadKokumbonaJan23-25.gif|thumb|right|American advance westward, 23–25 January]]

The U.S. and its Allies mistook Japanese preparations for ''Ke'' as another reinforcement attempt. With this in mind, Patch ordered his forces to launch another offensive against the Japanese forces west of the Matanikau. On 21 January, the 27th and 161st Regiments pushed westward from the area of the Galloping Horse. The Americans—unaware that the 38th Division was withdrawing in preparation to evacuate the island—were surprised to encounter light resistance. Advancing more quickly through the inland hills and ridges than the Japanese had anticipated, by 22 January the Americans were in position to capture Kokumbona on the coast, headquarters of the 17th Army, and completely cut off the remainder of the 2nd Division.<ref>Frank, pp. 546, 568–570; Miller, pp. 319–329. On 22 January, Colonel [[James Dalton II]] relieved Colonel [[Clarence Orndorff]]—who was ill with malaria—as commander of the 161st (Miller, p. 346).</ref>

Reacting quickly to the situation, the Japanese hurriedly evacuated Kokumbona and ordered the 2nd Division to retire westward immediately. The Americans captured Kokumbona on 23 January. Although some Japanese units were trapped between the American forces and destroyed, most of the 2nd Division's survivors escaped.<ref>Frank, p. 570; Miller, pp. 329–332.</ref>

Over the next week, the Japanese rear-guard—assisted by difficult terrain—effectively delayed the American advance westward from Kokumbona. General Patch—still believing that a Japanese reinforcement effort was imminent—kept most of his forces back to guard Henderson Field, sending only one regiment at a time to continue the advance. Thus, the majority of the surviving Japanese army forces was able to gather at Cape Esperance by the end of January. On 1, 4, and 7&nbsp;February, Japanese warships successfully evacuated 10,652 army troops from the island. On 9&nbsp;February, the Americans discovered that the Japanese were gone and declared Guadalcanal secure.<ref>Frank, pp. 571–572, 582–597; Miller, pp. 332–335, 338–349; Zimmerman, p. 164.</ref>

In hindsight, some historians have faulted the Americans—especially Patch and Admiral [[William Halsey]], commander of Allied forces in the South Pacific—for not taking advantage of their ground, aerial, and naval superiority to prevent the successful Japanese evacuation of most of their surviving forces from Guadalcanal. Halsey had been recently repulsed at the [[Battle of Rennell Island]]. Patch and Harmon's insistence on taking Mount Austen has been cited as one of the factors that delayed the American's main attack to the west, giving the 17th Army a chance to escape. Said [[Merrill B. Twining]] of the Japanese forces deployed on and around Mount Austen, "Theoretically these Japanese did offer a threat to our major force advancing westward along the coast, but as a practical matter these isolated groups were composed of sick and starving men unable to do anything more than die in place. Under the circumstances disclosed by subsequent events, it is obvious that Mt. Austen was just part of the scenery and of no significant import to either of the antagonists."<ref>Frank, p. 597; Rottman, p. 64; Miller, pp. 348–350; Twining, p. 165.</ref>

Nevertheless, the larger successful campaign to recapture Guadalcanal from the Japanese was an important strategic victory for the U.S. and its allies. Building on their success at Guadalcanal and elsewhere, the Allies continued their campaign against Japan, ultimately culminating in [[Surrender of Japan|Japan's surrender]] and the end of World War II.<ref>Frank, p. 597; Rottman, p. 64; Miller, pp. 348–350.</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==

===Books===
* {{cite book | last = Dull | first = Paul S. | year = 1978 | title = A Battle History of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1941–1945 | publisher = Naval Institute Press | isbn = 0-87021-097-1 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/battlehistoryofi0000dull }}
* {{cite book | last = Frank | first = Richard | author-link = Richard B. Frank | year = 1990 | title = Guadalcanal: The Definitive Account of the Landmark Battle | publisher = [[Random House]] | location = New York | isbn = 0-394-58875-4 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/guadalcanal00fran }}
* {{cite book | last = George | first = John B. | year = 1981 | title = Shots Fired in Anger: A rifleman's view of the war in the Pacific, 1942–1945, including the campaign on Guadalcanal and fighting with Merrill's Marauders in the jungles of Burma | publisher=[[National Rifle Association of America]] | isbn = 0-935998-42-X }}
* {{cite book | last = Gilbert | first = Oscar E. | year = 2001 | title = Marine Tank Battles in the Pacific | publisher = Da Capo | isbn = 1-58097-050-8 }}
* {{cite book | last = Griffith | first = Samuel B. | author-link = Samuel B. Griffith | year = 1963 | title = The Battle for Guadalcanal | publisher = University of Illinois Press | location = Champaign, Illinois, US | isbn = 0-252-06891-2 }}
* {{cite book | last = Jersey | first = Stanley Coleman | year = 2008 | title = Hell's Islands: The Untold Story of Guadalcanal | publisher = Texas A&M University Press | location = [[College Station, Texas]] | isbn = 978-1-58544-616-2 }}
* {{cite book | last = Morison | first = Samuel Eliot | author-link = Samuel Eliot Morison | year = 1958 | title = The Struggle for Guadalcanal, August 1942 – February 1943'', vol. 5 of ''History of United States Naval Operations in World War II | publisher = [[Little, Brown and Company]] | location = Boston | isbn = 0-316-58305-7 }}
* {{cite book | last = Rottman | first = Gordon L. | others = Dr. Duncan Anderson (consultant editor) | year = 2005 | title = Japanese Army in World War II: The South Pacific and New Guinea, 1942–43 | publisher = Osprey | location = Oxford and New York | isbn = 1-84176-870-7 }}
* {{cite book | last = Twining | first = Merrill B. | author-link = Merrill B. Twining | year = 1996 | title = No Bended Knee: The Battle for Guadalcanal | publisher = Presidio Press | location = [[Novato, California]] | isbn = 0-89141-549-1 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/nobendedkneebatt0000twin }}

===Web===
* {{cite web| last = Anderson| first = Charles R.| year = 1993| url = http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/72-8/72-8.htm| title = Guadalcanal| publisher = [[United States Army Center of Military History]]| series = The U.S. Army Campaigns of World War II| id = CMH Pub 72-8| access-date = 2006-07-09| archive-date = 20 December 2007| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071220212009/http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/72-8/72-8.htm| url-status = dead}}
* {{cite web| last = Hough| first = Frank O.| author2 = Ludwig, Verle E. | author3 = Shaw, Henry I. Jr.| url = http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USMC/I/index.html| title = Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal| work = History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II| access-date = 2006-05-16| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060627075209/http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USMC/I/index.html| archive-date= 27 June 2006 | url-status= live}}
* {{cite book| last = Miller| first = John Jr.| orig-year = 1949| url = http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/GuadC/GC-fm.htm| title = Guadalcanal: The First Offensive| series = United States Army in World War II| id = CMH Pub 5-3| publisher = [[United States Army Center of Military History]]| year = 1995| access-date = 2006-07-04| archive-date = 25 December 2007| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071225214108/http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/GuadC/GC-fm.htm| url-status = dead}}
* {{cite web| last = Shaw| first = Henry I.| year = 1992| url = http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USMC/USMC-C-Guadalcanal/index.html| title = First Offensive: The Marine Campaign For Guadalcanal| work = Marines in World War II Commemorative Series| access-date = 2006-07-25| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060614152034/http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USMC/USMC-C-Guadalcanal/index.html| archive-date= 14 June 2006 | url-status= live}}
* {{cite web| last = Zimmerman| first = John L.| year = 1949| url = http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USMC/USMC-M-Guadalcanal.html| title = The Guadalcanal Campaign| work = Marines in World War II Historical Monograph| access-date = 2006-07-04| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060619070901/http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USMC/USMC-M-Guadalcanal.html| archive-date= 19 June 2006 | url-status= live}}

==External links==
* {{Commonsinline|Battle of Mount Austen, the Galloping Horse, and the Sea Horse}}

{{featured article}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Mount Austen, Battle of}}
[[Category:1942 in Japan]]
[[Category:1942 in the Solomon Islands]]
[[Category:1943 in Japan]]
[[Category:1943 in the Solomon Islands]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of World War II involving the Solomon Islands]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving Japan]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving the United States]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1942]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1943]]
[[Category:Guadalcanal Campaign]]
[[Category:Military history of Japan during World War II]]
[[Category:Pacific Ocean theater of World War II]]
[[Category:United States Marine Corps in World War II]]
[[Category:December 1942]]
[[Category:January 1943]]Computer_science

{{Short description|Study of computation}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Pp-move}}
{{Use American English|date=August 2022}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2017}}
{{Multiple image|perrow = 2 / 2|total_width = 300
| header            = Fundamental areas of computer science

| image1            = Lambda_calculus-Church_numerals.png
| alt1              = Expression for Church numerals in lambda calculus
| caption1          = [[Programming language theory]]
| image2            = Sorting quicksort anim.gif
| alt2              = Plot of a quicksort algorithm
| caption2          = [[Computational complexity theory]]
| image3            = Activemarker2.PNG
| alt3              = Example of computer animation produced using motion capture
| caption3          = [[Artificial intelligence]]
| image4            = Half Adder.svg
| alt4              = Half-adder circuit
| caption4          = [[Computer architecture]]
}}
{{TopicTOC-Computer science}}

'''Computer science''' is the study of [[computation]], [[information]], and [[automation]].<ref name="YorkDefinition">{{Cite web |title=What is Computer Science? |url=https://www.cs.york.ac.uk/undergraduate/what-is-cs/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611230638/https://www.cs.york.ac.uk/undergraduate/what-is-cs/ |archive-date=June 11, 2020 |access-date=2020-06-11 |website=Department of Computer Science, University of York |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=MITAutomated>{{Cite book |title=What Can Be Automated? Computer Science and Engineering Research Study |url=https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/what-can-be-automated|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109021022/https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/what-can-be-automated|archive-date=January 9, 2021|access-date= |series=Computer Science Series|year=1980|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0262010603|language=en}}</ref><ref name=DenningAutomated>{{Cite journal |last1=Denning |first1=P.J. |last2=Comer |first2=D.E. |last3=Gries |first3=D. |last4=Mulder |first4=M.C. |last5=Tucker |first5=A. |last6=Turner |first6=A.J. |last7=Young |first7=P.R. |date=February 1989 |title=Computing as a discipline |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/19833 |journal=Computer |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=63–70 |doi=10.1109/2.19833 |issn=1558-0814 |quote=The discipline of computing is the systematic study of algorithmic processes that describe and transform information, their theory, analysis, design, efficiency, implementation, and application. The fundamental question underlying all of computing is, 'What can be (efficiently) automated?' |access-date=March 3, 2022 |archive-date=March 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303023329/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/19833 |url-status=live }}</ref> Computer science spans [[Theoretical computer science|theoretical disciplines]] (such as [[algorithm]]s, [[theory of computation]], and [[information theory]]) to [[Applied science|applied disciplines]] (including the design and implementation of [[Computer architecture|hardware]] and [[Software engineering|software]]).<ref>{{cite web |title=WordNet Search—3.1 |url=http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=computer%20scientist |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018181122/http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=computer%20scientist |archive-date=October 18, 2017 |access-date=14 May 2012 |website=WordNet Search |publisher=Wordnetweb.princeton.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Definition of computer science {{!}} Dictionary.com|url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/computer-science|access-date=2020-06-11|website=www.dictionary.com|language=en|archive-date=June 11, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611224238/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/computer-science|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Computer Science? {{!}} Undergraduate Computer Science at UMD |url=https://undergrad.cs.umd.edu/what-computer-science |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=undergrad.cs.umd.edu |archive-date=November 27, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127013803/https://undergrad.cs.umd.edu/what-computer-science |url-status=live }}</ref> 

Algorithms and [[data structure]]s are central to computer science.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harel|first=David|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/876384882|title=Algorithmics The Spirit of Computing|date=2014|publisher=Springer Berlin|isbn=978-3-642-44135-6|oclc=876384882|access-date=June 17, 2020|archive-date=June 17, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617145021/https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/876384882|url-status=live}}</ref>
<!-- Removing this for now -- it's a "contrasting" reference which views automata theory as central.
I think this nuance is unnecessary in the lead and the views are not really in conflict.
<ref>
Compare:
{{cite book
 |last1                = Abbott
 |first1               = Russell J.
 |editor-last1         = Kent
 |editor-first1        = Allen
 |editor-link1         = Allen Kent
 |editor-last2         = Williams
 |editor-first2        = James G.
 |chapter              = Knowledge abstraction
 |title                = Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology: Volume 21 - Supplement 6: ADA and Distributed Systems to Visual Languages
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=TZrxHta_0qYC
 |series               = Computer Science and Technology Encyclopedia
 |location             = New York
 |publisher            = CRC Press
 |publication-date     = 1989
 |page                 = 191
 |isbn                 = 978-0824722715
 |access-date          = 4 February 2022
 |quote                = [...] automata theory, which is the heart of computer science theory [...].
}}
</ref>
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The theory of computation concerns abstract [[models of computation]] and general classes of [[computational problem|problems]] that can be solved using them. The fields of [[cryptography]] and [[computer security]] involve studying the means for secure communication and preventing [[security vulnerabilities]]. [[Computer graphics (computer science)|Computer graphics]] and [[computational geometry]] address the generation of images. [[Programming language theory]] considers different ways to describe computational processes, and [[database]] theory concerns the management of repositories of data. [[Human–computer interaction]] investigates the interfaces through which humans and computers interact, and software engineering focuses on the design and principles behind developing software. Areas such as [[operating system]]s, [[Computer network|network]]s and [[embedded system]]s investigate the principles and design behind [[complex system]]s. Computer architecture describes the construction of computer components and computer-operated equipment. [[Artificial intelligence]] and [[machine learning]] aim to synthesize goal-orientated processes such as problem-solving, decision-making, environmental adaptation, [[Automated planning and scheduling|planning]] and learning found in humans and animals. Within artificial intelligence, [[computer vision]] aims to understand and process image and video data, while [[natural language processing]] aims to understand and process textual and linguistic data.

The fundamental concern of computer science is determining what can and cannot be automated.<ref name=MITAutomated/><ref>{{Citation |last1=Patton |first1=Richard D. |date=2009 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-78831-7_18 |work=Springer Handbook of Automation |pages=305–313 |editor-last=Nof |editor-first=Shimon Y. |series=Springer Handbooks |place=Berlin, Heidelberg |publisher=Springer |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-540-78831-7_18 |isbn=978-3-540-78831-7 |access-date=2022-03-03 |last2=Patton |first2=Peter C. |title=What Can be Automated? What Cannot be Automated? |archive-date=January 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111224039/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-540-78831-7_18 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=DenningAutomated/><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Forsythe |first=George |date=August 5–10, 1969 |title=Computer Science and Education |journal=Proceedings of IFIP Congress 1968 |quote=The question 'What can be automated?' is one of the most inspiring philosophical and practical questions of contemporary civilization.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Knuth |first=Donald E. |date=1972-08-01 |title=George Forsythe and the development of computer science |journal=Communications of the ACM |volume=15 |issue=8 |pages=721–726 |doi=10.1145/361532.361538 |s2cid=12512057 |issn=0001-0782|doi-access=free }}</ref> The [[Turing Award]] is generally recognized as the highest distinction in computer science.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hanson |first=Vicki L. |date=2017-01-23 |title=Celebrating 50 years of the Turing award |journal=Communications of the ACM |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=5 |doi=10.1145/3033604 |s2cid=29984960 |issn=0001-0782 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Scott |first1=Eric |last2=Martins |first2=Marcella Scoczynski Ribeiro |last3=Yafrani |first3=Mohamed El |last4=Volz |first4=Vanessa |last5=Wilson |first5=Dennis G |date=2018-06-05 |title=ACM marks 50 years of the ACM A.M. turing award and computing's greatest achievements |url=https://doi.org/10.1145/3231560.3231563 |journal=ACM SIGEVOlution |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=9–11 |doi=10.1145/3231560.3231563|s2cid=47021559 |issn = 1931-8499 }}</ref>

{{TOClimit|4}}

==History==
{{main|History of computer science}}
{{History of computing}}
[[File:Christoph Bernhard Francke - Bildnis des Philosophen Leibniz (ca. 1695).jpg|thumb|200x200px|[[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] (1646–1716) developed [[logic]] in a [[binary number]] system and has been called the "founder of computer science".<ref>{{cite web |title=2021: 375th birthday of Leibniz, father of computer science |url=https://people.idsia.ch/~juergen/leibniz-father-computer-science-375.html |website=people.idsia.ch |access-date=February 4, 2023 |archive-date=September 21, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220921232935/https://people.idsia.ch/~juergen/leibniz-father-computer-science-375.html |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
[[File:Babbage40.png|upright|thumb|[[Charles Babbage]] is sometimes referred to as the "father of computing".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbi.umn.edu/about/babbage.html|title=Charles Babbage Institute: Who Was Charles Babbage?|website=cbi.umn.edu|access-date=28 December 2016|archive-date=January 9, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070109093346/http://www.cbi.umn.edu/about/babbage.html|url-status=live}}</ref> ]]
[[File:Ada lovelace.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Ada Lovelace]] published the first [[algorithm]] intended for processing on a computer.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.computerhistory.org/babbage/adalovelace/|title=Ada Lovelace {{!}} Babbage Engine {{!}} Computer History Museum|website=www.computerhistory.org|access-date=28 December 2016|archive-date=December 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225024329/http://www.computerhistory.org/babbage/adalovelace/%20|url-status=live}}</ref> ]]

The earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern [[digital computer]]. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the [[abacus]] have existed since antiquity, aiding in computations such as multiplication and division. [[Algorithm]]s for performing computations have existed since antiquity, even before the development of sophisticated computing equipment.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of Computer Science |url=https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/~shallit/Courses/134/history.html#:~:text=In%20the%201960%27s,%20computer%20science,person%20to%20receive%20a%20Ph. |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=cs.uwaterloo.ca |archive-date=July 29, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729210116/https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/~shallit/Courses/134/history.html#:~:text=In%20the%201960%27s,%20computer%20science,person%20to%20receive%20a%20Ph. |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Wilhelm Schickard]] designed and constructed the first working [[mechanical calculator]] in 1623.<ref>{{cite web|title=Wilhelm Schickard – Ein Computerpionier|url=http://www.fmi.uni-jena.de/fmimedia/Fakultaet/Institute+und+Abteilungen/Abteilung+f%C3%BCr+Didaktik/GDI/Wilhelm+Schickard.pdf|language=de|access-date=December 4, 2016|archive-date=September 19, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919014352/https://www.fmi.uni-jena.de/fmimedia/Fakultaet/Institute+und+Abteilungen/Abteilung+f%C3%BCr+Didaktik/GDI/Wilhelm+Schickard.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 1673, [[Gottfried Leibniz]] demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the [[Stepped Reckoner]].<ref>{{cite web|title = A Brief History of Computing|url = http://blogs.royalsociety.org/history-of-science/2012/06/25/history-of-computing/|first = Fiona|last = Keates|work = The Repository|publisher = The Royal Society|date = 25 June 2012|access-date = January 19, 2014|archive-date = June 29, 2012|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120629072020/http://blogs.royalsociety.org/history-of-science/2012/06/25/history-of-computing/|url-status = dead}}</ref> Leibniz may be considered the first [[computer scientist]] and information theorist, because of various reasons, including the fact that he documented the binary number system. In 1820, [[Thomas de Colmar]] launched the mechanical calculator industry<ref group=note>In 1851</ref> when he invented his simplified [[arithmometer]], the first calculating machine strong enough and reliable enough to be used daily in an office environment. [[Charles Babbage]] started the design of the first ''automatic mechanical calculator'', his [[Difference Engine]], in 1822, which eventually gave him the idea of the first ''programmable mechanical calculator'', his [[Analytical Engine]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Science Museum, Babbage's Analytical Engine, 1834–1871 (Trial model)|url=https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co62245/babbages-analytical-engine-1834-1871-trial-model-analytical-engines|access-date=2020-05-11|archive-date=August 30, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190830123359/https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co62245/babbages-analytical-engine-1834-1871-trial-model-analytical-engines|url-status=live}}</ref> He started developing this machine in 1834, and "in less than two years, he had sketched out many of the [[wikt:Special:Search/salient|salient]] features of the modern computer".<ref name="Hyman1982">{{cite book|first=Anthony|last=Hyman|author-link=R. Anthony Hyman|title=[[Charles Babbage: Pioneer of the Computer]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=1982|isbn=978-0691083032}}</ref> "A crucial step was the adoption of a punched card system derived from the [[Jacquard loom]]"<ref name="Hyman1982" /> making it infinitely programmable.<ref group=note>"The introduction of punched cards into the new engine was important not only as a more convenient form of control than the drums, or because programs could now be of unlimited extent, and could be stored and repeated without the danger of introducing errors in setting the machine by hand; it was important also because it served to crystallize Babbage's feeling that he had invented something really new, something much more than a sophisticated calculating machine." [[#COLLIER|Bruce Collier]], 1970</ref> In 1843, during the translation of a French article on the Analytical Engine, [[Ada Lovelace]] wrote, in one of the many notes she included, an algorithm to compute the [[Bernoulli number]]s, which is considered to be the first published algorithm ever specifically tailored for implementation on a computer.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scottlan.edu/Lriddle/women/ada-love.htm |title=A Selection and Adaptation From Ada's Notes found in Ada, The Enchantress of Numbers," by Betty Alexandra Toole Ed.D. Strawberry Press, Mill Valley, CA |access-date=4 May 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060210172109/http://www.scottlan.edu/lriddle/women/ada-love.htm |archive-date=February 10, 2006 }}</ref> Around 1885, [[Herman Hollerith]] invented the [[tabulating machine|tabulator]], which used [[punched card]]s to process statistical information; eventually his company became part of [[IBM]]. Following Babbage, although unaware of his earlier work, [[Percy Ludgate]] in 1909 published<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://scss.tcd.ie/SCSSTreasuresCatalog/miscellany/TCD-SCSS-X.20121208.002/TCD-SCSS-X.20121208.002.pdf/ |title=The John Gabriel Byrne Computer Science Collection |access-date=August 8, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416071721/https://www.scss.tcd.ie/SCSSTreasuresCatalog/miscellany/TCD-SCSS-X.20121208.002/TCD-SCSS-X.20121208.002.pdf |archive-date=April 16, 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref> the 2nd of the only two designs for mechanical analytical engines in history. In 1914, the Spanish engineer [[Leonardo Torres Quevedo]] published his ''Essays on Automatics'',<ref name="LTQ1914es">Torres Quevedo, L. (1914). "Ensayos sobre Automática – Su definicion. Extension teórica de sus aplicaciones". ''Revista de la Academia de Ciencias Exacta'', 12, pp. 391–418.</ref> and designed, inspired by Babbage, a theoretical electromechanical calculating machine which was to be controlled by a read-only program. The paper also introduced the idea of [[floating-point arithmetic]].<ref>Torres Quevedo, Leonardo. [https://quickclick.es/rop/pdf/publico/1914/1914_tomoI_2043_01.pdf Automática: Complemento de la Teoría de las Máquinas, (pdf)], pp. 575–583, Revista de Obras Públicas, 19 November 1914.</ref><ref>Ronald T. Kneusel. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eq4ZDgAAQBAJ&dq=leonardo+torres+quevedo++electromechanical+machine+essays&pg=PA84 Numbers and Computers],'' Springer, pp. 84–85, 2017. {{ISBN|978-3319505084}}</ref> In 1920, to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the invention of the arithmometer, Torres presented in Paris the [[Leonardo Torres y Quevedo#Analytical machines|Electromechanical Arithmometer]], a prototype that demonstrated the feasibility of an electromechanical analytical engine,<ref>Randell, Brian. [https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.5555/1074100.1074334 Digital Computers, History of Origins, (pdf)], p. 545, Digital Computers: Origins, Encyclopedia of Computer Science, January 2003.</ref> on which commands could be typed and the results printed automatically.{{Sfn|Randell|1982|p=6, 11–13}} In 1937, one hundred years after Babbage's impossible dream, [[Howard Aiken]] convinced IBM, which was making all kinds of punched card equipment and was also in the calculator business<ref>"In this sense Aiken needed IBM, whose technology included the use of punched cards, the accumulation of numerical data, and the transfer of numerical data from one register to another", [[#HAIKEN|Bernard Cohen]], p.44 (2000)</ref> to develop his giant programmable calculator, the [[Harvard Mark I|ASCC/Harvard Mark I]], based on Babbage's Analytical Engine, which itself used cards and a central computing unit. When the machine was finished, some hailed it as "Babbage's dream come true".<ref>[[#CITEREFRandell1973|Brian Randell]], p. 187, 1975</ref>

During the 1940s, with the development of new and more powerful [[computing]] machines such as the [[Atanasoff–Berry computer]] and [[ENIAC]], the term ''computer'' came to refer to the machines rather than their human predecessors.<ref>The [[Association for Computing Machinery]] (ACM) was founded in 1947.</ref> As it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study [[computation]] in general. In 1945, IBM founded the [[Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory]] at [[Columbia University]] in [[New York City]]. The renovated fraternity house on Manhattan's West Side was IBM's first laboratory devoted to pure science. The lab is the forerunner of IBM's Research Division, which today operates research facilities around the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1945.html |title=IBM Archives: 1945 |date=January 23, 2003 |publisher=Ibm.com |access-date=2019-03-19 |archive-date=January 5, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190105013948/https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1945.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Ultimately, the close relationship between IBM and Columbia University was instrumental in the emergence of a new scientific discipline, with Columbia offering one of the first academic-credit courses in computer science in 1946.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm100/us/en/icons/compsci/ |title=IBM100 – The Origins of Computer Science |publisher=Ibm.com |date=1995-09-15 |access-date=2019-03-19 |archive-date=January 5, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190105051800/https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm100/us/en/icons/compsci/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Computer science began to be established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1950s and early 1960s.<ref name=Denning>{{Cite journal |last1=Denning |first1=P.J. |last2=Comer |first2=D.E. |last3=Gries |first3=D. |last4=Mulder |first4=M.C. |last5=Tucker |first5=A. |last6=Turner |first6=A.J. |last7=Young |first7=P.R. |date=February 1989 |title=Computing as a discipline |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/19833 |journal=Computer |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=63–70 |doi=10.1109/2.19833 |issn=1558-0814 |access-date=March 3, 2022 |archive-date=March 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303023329/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/19833 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/conference/EDSAC99/statistics.html |title=Some EDSAC statistics |publisher=University of Cambridge |access-date=19 November 2011 |archive-date=September 3, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070903055322/http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/conference/EDSAC99/statistics.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The world's first computer science degree program, the [[Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science]], began at the [[University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory]] in 1953. The first computer science department in the United States was formed at [[Purdue University]] in 1962.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cs.purdue.edu/about/conte.html |title=Computer science pioneer Samuel D. Conte dies at 85 |date=July 1, 2002 |publisher=Purdue Computer Science |access-date=December 12, 2014 |archive-date=October 6, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006142241/http://www.cs.purdue.edu/about/conte.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights.{{see also|History of computing|History of informatics}}

==Etymology and scope==
{{see also|Informatics#Etymology}}

Although first proposed in 1956,<ref name="Tedre2014">{{cite book|last=Tedre|first=Matti|title=The Science of Computing: Shaping a Discipline|publisher=Taylor and Francis / CRC Press|year=2014}}</ref> the term "computer science" appears in a 1959 article in ''[[Communications of the ACM]]'',<ref name="Fine_1959">
{{cite journal
 |author=Louis Fine
 |year=1960
 |title=The Role of the University in Computers, Data Processing, and Related Fields
 |journal=Communications of the ACM
 |volume=2 |issue=9 |pages=7–14
 |doi=10.1145/368424.368427
|s2cid=6740821
 |doi-access=free
 }}</ref>
in which Louis Fein argues for the creation of a ''Graduate School in Computer Sciences'' analogous to the creation of [[Harvard Business School]] in 1921.<ref>{{cite web|title=Stanford University Oral History|url=http://library.stanford.edu/guides/stanford-university-oral-history|publisher=Stanford University|access-date=May 30, 2013|archive-date=April 4, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170404070555/http://library.stanford.edu/guides/stanford-university-oral-history|url-status=live}}</ref> Louis justifies the name by arguing that, like [[management science]], the subject is applied and interdisciplinary in nature, while having the characteristics typical of an academic discipline.<ref name="Fine_1959"/>
His efforts, and those of others such as [[numerical analyst]] [[George Forsythe]], were rewarded: universities went on to create such departments, starting with Purdue in 1962.<ref>[[Donald Knuth]] (1972). ''[http://www.stanford.edu/dept/ICME/docs/history/forsythe_knuth.pdf "George Forsythe and the Development of Computer Science"]''. ''Comms. ACM''. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020200802/http://www.stanford.edu/dept/ICME/docs/history/forsythe_knuth.pdf |date=October 20, 2013 }}</ref> Despite its name, a significant amount of computer science does not involve the study of computers themselves. Because of this, several alternative names have been proposed.<ref>{{cite web |author=Matti Tedre |year=2006 |url=http://epublications.uef.fi/pub/urn_isbn_952-458-867-6/urn_isbn_952-458-867-6.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://epublications.uef.fi/pub/urn_isbn_952-458-867-6/urn_isbn_952-458-867-6.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=The Development of Computer Science: A Sociocultural Perspective |page=260 |access-date=December 12, 2014}}</ref> Certain departments of major universities prefer the term ''computing science'', to emphasize precisely that difference. Danish scientist [[Peter Naur]] suggested the term ''datalogy'',<ref>
{{cite journal
 |author=Peter Naur
 |year=1966
 |title=The science of datalogy
 |journal=Communications of the ACM
 |volume=9 |issue=7 |page=485
 |doi=10.1145/365719.366510
|s2cid=47558402
 |doi-access=free
 }}</ref> to reflect the fact that the scientific discipline revolves around data and data treatment, while not necessarily involving computers. The first scientific institution to use the term was the Department of Datalogy at the University of Copenhagen, founded in 1969, with Peter Naur being the first professor in datalogy. The term is used mainly in the Scandinavian countries. An alternative term, also proposed by Naur, is [[data science]]; this is now used for a [[multi-disciplinary]] field of data analysis, including statistics and databases.

In the early days of computing, a number of terms for the practitioners of the field of computing were suggested (albeit facetiously) in the ''Communications of the ACM''—''turingineer'', ''turologist'', ''flow-charts-man'', ''applied meta-mathematician'', and ''applied [[epistemologist]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |date=<!-- missing! --> |volume=1 |issue=4 |page=6| doi = 10.1145/368796.368802|last1=Weiss |first1=E.A. |title=Letters to the editor |journal= Communications of the ACM |last2=Corley |first2=Henry P.T. |s2cid=5379449 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Three months later in the same journal, ''comptologist'' was suggested, followed next year by ''hypologist''.<ref>Communications of the ACM 2(1):p.4</ref> The term ''computics'' has also been suggested.<ref>IEEE Computer 28(12): p.136</ref> {{anchor|Name of the field in Europe}}In Europe, terms derived from contracted translations of the expression "automatic information" (e.g. "{{lang|it|informazione automatica}}" in Italian) or "information and mathematics" are often used, e.g. {{lang|fr|informatique}} (French), {{lang|de|Informatik}} (German), {{lang|it|informatica}} (Italian, Dutch), {{lang|es|informática}} (Spanish, Portuguese), {{lang|sla|informatika}} ([[Slavic languages]] and [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]) or {{lang|el-latn|pliroforiki}} ({{lang|el|πληροφορική|italic=no}}, which means informatics) in [[Greek language|Greek]]. Similar words have also been adopted in the UK (as in the [[School of Informatics, University of Edinburgh]]).<ref>P. Mounier-Kuhn, ''L'Informatique en France, de la seconde guerre mondiale au Plan Calcul. L'émergence d'une science'', Paris, PUPS, 2010, ch. 3 & 4.</ref> "In the U.S., however, [[informatics]] is linked with applied computing, or computing in the context of another domain."<ref>{{cite web |last=Groth |first=Dennis P. |url=http://cacm.acm.org/magazines/2010/2/69363-why-an-informatics-degree |title=Why an Informatics Degree? |date=February 2010 |work=Communications of the ACM |publisher=Cacm.acm.org |access-date=June 14, 2016 |archive-date=January 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111224014/https://cacm.acm.org/magazines/2010/2/69363-why-an-informatics-degree/abstract |url-status=live }}</ref>

A folkloric quotation, often attributed to—but almost certainly not first formulated by—[[Edsger Dijkstra]], states that "computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes."<ref group=note>See the entry
"[[q:Computer science|Computer science]]" on Wikiquote for the history of this quotation.</ref> The design and deployment of computers and computer systems is generally considered the province of disciplines other than computer science. For example, the study of computer hardware is usually considered part of [[computer engineering]], while the study of commercial [[computer system]]s and their deployment is often called information technology or [[information system]]s. However, there has been exchange of ideas between the various computer-related disciplines. Computer science research also often intersects other disciplines, such as [[cognitive science]], [[computational linguistics|linguistics]], [[mathematics]], [[physics]], [[biology]], [[Earth science]], [[computational statistics|statistics]], [[philosophy]], and [[logic]].

Computer science is considered by some to have a much closer relationship with mathematics than many scientific disciplines, with some observers saying that computing is a mathematical science.<ref name=Denning/> Early computer science was strongly influenced by the work of mathematicians such as [[Kurt Gödel]], [[Alan Turing]], [[John von Neumann]], [[Rózsa Péter]] and [[Alonzo Church]] and there continues to be a useful interchange of ideas between the two fields in areas such as [[mathematical logic]], [[category theory]], [[domain theory]], and [[algebra]].<ref name="Tedre2014"/>

The relationship between computer science and software engineering is a contentious issue, which is further muddied by [[Software engineering#Suitability|disputes]] over what the term "software engineering" means, and how computer science is defined.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Tedre | first1 = M. | title = Computing as a Science: A Survey of Competing Viewpoints | doi = 10.1007/s11023-011-9240-4 | journal = Minds and Machines | volume = 21 | issue = 3 | pages = 361–387 | year = 2011 | s2cid = 14263916 }}</ref> [[David Parnas]], taking a cue from the relationship between other engineering and science disciplines, has claimed that the principal focus of computer science is studying the properties of computation in general, while the principal focus of software engineering is the design of specific computations to achieve practical goals, making the two separate but complementary disciplines.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Parnas | first1 = D.L. | journal = Annals of Software Engineering | volume = 6 | pages = 19–37 | year = 1998 | doi = 10.1023/A:1018949113292|title=Software engineering programmes are not computer science programmes| s2cid = 35786237 }}, p. 19: "Rather than treat software engineering as a subfield of computer science, I treat it as an element of the set, Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Electrical Engineering, [...]"</ref>

The academic, political, and funding aspects of computer science tend to depend on whether a department is formed with a mathematical emphasis or with an engineering emphasis. Computer science departments with a mathematics emphasis and with a numerical orientation consider alignment with [[computational science]]. Both types of departments tend to make efforts to bridge the field educationally if not across all research.

==Philosophy==
{{main|Philosophy of computer science}}

===Epistemology of computer science===
Despite the word ''science'' in its name, there is debate over whether or not computer science is a discipline of science,<ref name="Luk20">{{cite journal|last = Luk| first= R.W.P.| title=Insight in how computer science can be a science| date = 2020 | journal = Science & Philosophy | volume = 8 | issue = 2| pages = 17–47 | doi = 10.23756/sp.v8i2.531}}</ref> mathematics,<ref name="Knuth74">{{cite journal| last = Knuth| first=D.E.| date = 1974 | title = Computer science and its relation to mathematics | journal = The American Mathematical Monthly | volume = 81 | issue = 4 | pages = 323–343 | doi = 10.2307/2318994| jstor=2318994}}</ref> or engineering.<ref name = "plato">{{cite book| chapter-url = https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/computer-science/#EpisStatCompScie| title = The Philosophy of Computer Science (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)| chapter = The Philosophy of Computer Science| year = 2021| publisher = Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University| access-date = September 16, 2021| archive-date = September 16, 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210916211931/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/computer-science/#EpisStatCompScie| url-status = live}}</ref> [[Allen Newell]] and [[Herbert A. Simon]] argued in 1975, {{Blockquote|text =Computer science is an empirical discipline. We would have called it an experimental science, but like astronomy, economics, and geology, some of its unique forms of observation and experience do not fit a narrow stereotype of the experimental method. Nonetheless, they are experiments. Each new machine that is built is an experiment. Actually constructing the machine poses a question to nature; and we listen for the answer by observing the machine in operation and analyzing it by all analytical and measurement means available.<ref name = "plato"/>}} It has since been argued that computer science can be classified as an empirical science since it makes use of empirical testing to evaluate the [[Correctness (computer science)|correctness of programs]], but a problem remains in defining the laws and theorems of computer science (if any exist) and defining the nature of experiments in computer science.<ref name = "plato"/> Proponents of classifying computer science as an engineering discipline argue that the reliability of computational systems is investigated in the same way as bridges in [[civil engineering]] and airplanes in [[aerospace engineering]].<ref name = "plato"/> They also argue that while empirical sciences observe what presently exists, computer science observes what is possible to exist and while scientists discover laws from observation, no proper laws have been found in computer science and it is instead concerned with creating phenomena.<ref name = "plato"/>

Proponents of classifying computer science as a mathematical discipline argue that computer programs are physical realizations of mathematical entities and programs that can be [[deductive reasoning|deductively reasoned]] through mathematical [[formal methods]].<ref name = "plato"/> Computer scientists [[Edsger W. Dijkstra]] and [[Tony Hoare]] regard instructions for computer programs as mathematical sentences and interpret formal semantics for programming languages as mathematical [[axiomatic system]]s.<ref name = "plato"/>

===Paradigms of computer science===
A number of computer scientists have argued for the distinction of three separate paradigms in computer science. [[Peter Wegner (computer scientist)|Peter Wegner]] argued that those paradigms are science, technology, and mathematics.<ref>{{cite conference |author=Wegner, P. |title=Research paradigms in computer science—Proceedings of the 2nd international Conference on Software Engineering |location=San Francisco, California, United States |date=October 13–15, 1976 |publisher=IEEE Computer Society Press, Los Alamitos, CA}}</ref> [[Peter J. Denning|Peter Denning]]'s working group argued that they are theory, abstraction (modeling), and design.<ref name=Denning/> Amnon H. Eden described them as the "rationalist paradigm" (which treats computer science as a branch of mathematics, which is prevalent in theoretical computer science, and mainly employs deductive reasoning), the "technocratic paradigm" (which might be found in engineering approaches, most prominently in software engineering), and the "scientific paradigm" (which approaches computer-related artifacts from the empirical perspective of [[natural science]]s,<ref name=denning07>{{Cite journal | first = Peter J. | last = Denning | title = Computing is a natural science | journal = Communications of the ACM | year = 2007 | volume = 50 | issue = 7 | pages = 13–18 | doi = 10.1145/1272516.1272529| s2cid = 20045303 }}</ref> identifiable in some branches of [[artificial intelligence]]).<ref>{{Cite journal | first1 = A.H. | title = Three Paradigms of Computer Science | journal = [[Minds and Machines]] | last1 = Eden | volume = 17 | issue = 2 | year = 2007 | url = http://www.eden-study.org/articles/2007/three_paradigms_of_computer_science.pdf | doi = 10.1007/s11023-007-9060-8 | pages = 135–167 | url-status=dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160215100211/http://www.eden-study.org/articles/2007/three_paradigms_of_computer_science.pdf | archive-date = February 15, 2016 | df = mdy-all | citeseerx = 10.1.1.304.7763 | s2cid = 3023076 }}</ref>
Computer science focuses on methods involved in design, specification, programming, verification, implementation and testing of human-made computing systems.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Turner |first1=Raymond |last2=Angius |first2=Nicola |editor1-last=Zalta |editor1-first=Edward N. |title=The Philosophy of Computer Science |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=2019 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/computer-science/ |access-date=October 14, 2019 |archive-date=October 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191014101624/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/computer-science/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Fields==
{{Dynamic list}}
{{further|Outline of computer science}}
As a discipline, computer science spans a range of topics from theoretical studies of algorithms and the limits of computation to the practical issues of implementing computing systems in hardware and software.<ref name="CSAB1997">{{cite web|publisher=Computing Sciences Accreditation Board|title=Computer Science as a Profession|url=http://www.csab.org/comp_sci_profession.html |date=May 28, 1997| access-date=23 May 2010 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080617030847/http://www.csab.org/comp_sci_profession.html |archive-date = June 17, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Committee on the Fundamentals of Computer Science: Challenges and Opportunities, National Research Council|title=Computer Science: Reflections on the Field, Reflections from the Field|url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11106#toc|publisher=National Academies Press|isbn=978-0-309-09301-9|year=2004|access-date=August 31, 2008|archive-date=February 18, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110218122042/http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11106#toc|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[CSAB (professional organization)|CSAB]], formerly called Computing Sciences Accreditation Board—which is made up of representatives of the [[Association for Computing Machinery]] (ACM), and the [[IEEE Computer Society]] (IEEE CS)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.csab.org/ |title=CSAB Leading Computer Education |publisher=CSAB |date=August 3, 2011 |access-date=19 November 2011 |archive-date=January 20, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190120190336/http://www.csab.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>—identifies four areas that it considers crucial to the discipline of computer science: ''theory of computation'', ''algorithms and data structures'', ''programming methodology and languages'', and ''computer elements and architecture''. In addition to these four areas, CSAB also identifies fields such as software engineering, artificial intelligence, computer networking and communication, database systems, parallel computation, distributed computation, human–computer interaction, computer graphics, operating systems, and numerical and [[symbolic computation]] as being important areas of computer science.<ref name="CSAB1997"/>

===Theoretical computer science===
{{main|Theoretical computer science}}
''Theoretical computer science'' is mathematical and abstract in spirit, but it derives its motivation from practical and everyday computation. It aims to understand the nature of computation and, as a consequence of this understanding, provide more efficient methodologies.

====Theory of computation====

{{main|Theory of computation}}

According to Peter Denning, the fundamental question underlying computer science is, "What can be automated?"<ref name=DenningAutomated/> Theory of computation is focused on answering fundamental questions about what can be computed and what amount of resources are required to perform those computations. In an effort to answer the first question, [[computability theory]] examines which computational problems are solvable on various theoretical [[models of computation]]. The second question is addressed by [[computational complexity theory]], which studies the time and space costs associated with different approaches to solving a multitude of computational problems.

The famous [[P = NP?]] problem, one of the [[Millennium Prize Problems]],<ref>[http://www.claymath.org/millennium/P_vs_NP/ Clay Mathematics Institute] P = NP {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014194456/http://www.claymath.org/millennium/P_vs_NP/ |date=October 14, 2013 }}</ref> is an open problem in the theory of computation.

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| [[Automata theory]]
| [[Formal language]]s
| [[Computability theory]]
| [[Computational complexity theory]]
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| [[Models of computation]]
| [[Quantum computer|Quantum computing theory]]
| [[Circuit (computer science)|Logic circuit theory]]
| [[Cellular automata]]
|}

====Information and coding theory====

{{main|Information theory|Coding theory}}

Information theory, closely related to [[probability]] and [[statistics]], is related to the quantification of information. This was developed by [[Claude Shannon]] to find fundamental limits on [[signal processing]] operations such as compressing data and on reliably storing and communicating data.<ref>{{cite web |date=October 14, 2002 |last=P. Collins |first=Graham |title=Claude E. Shannon: Founder of Information Theory |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=claude-e-shannon-founder |work=Scientific American |access-date=December 12, 2014 |archive-date=January 16, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116183558/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=claude-e-shannon-founder |url-status=live }}</ref>
Coding theory is the study of the properties of [[code]]s (systems for converting information from one form to another) and their fitness for a specific application. Codes are used for [[data compression]], [[cryptography]], [[error detection and correction]], and more recently also for [[network coding]]. Codes are studied for the purpose of designing efficient and reliable [[data transmission]] methods.
<ref>Van-Nam Huynh; Vladik Kreinovich; Songsak Sriboonchitta; 2012. ''Uncertainty Analysis in Econometrics with Applications''. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 63. {{ISBN|978-3-642-35443-4}}.</ref>

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| [[Coding theory]]
| [[Channel capacity]]
| [[Algorithmic information theory]]
| [[Signal detection theory]]
| [[Kolmogorov complexity]]
|}

====Data structures and algorithms====

{{main|Data structure|Algorithm}}Data structures and algorithms are the studies of commonly used computational methods and their computational efficiency.

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| [[Analysis of algorithms]]
| [[Algorithmics|Algorithm design]]
| [[Data structures]]
| [[Combinatorial optimization]]
| [[Computational geometry]]
| [[Randomized algorithms]]
|}

====Programming language theory and formal methods====
{{main|Programming language theory|Formal methods}}
Programming language theory is a branch of computer science that deals with the design, implementation, analysis, characterization, and classification of [[programming language]]s and their individual [[Programming language#Elements|features]]. It falls within the discipline of computer science, both depending on and affecting mathematics, software engineering, and [[linguistics]]. It is an active research area, with numerous dedicated academic journals.

Formal methods are a particular kind of mathematically based technique for the [[formal specification|specification]], development and [[formal verification|verification]] of software and [[computer hardware|hardware]] systems.<ref>Phillip A. Laplante, (2010). ''Encyclopedia of Software Engineering'' Three-Volume Set (Print). CRC Press. p. 309. {{ISBN|978-1-351-24926-3}}.</ref> The use of formal methods for software and hardware design is motivated by the expectation that, as in other engineering disciplines, performing appropriate mathematical analysis can contribute to the reliability and robustness of a design. They form an important theoretical underpinning for software engineering, especially where safety or security is involved. Formal methods are a useful adjunct to software testing since they help avoid errors and can also give a framework for testing. For industrial use, tool support is required. However, the high cost of using formal methods means that they are usually only used in the development of high-integrity and [[life-critical system]]s, where safety or [[computer security|security]] is of utmost importance. Formal methods are best described as the application of a fairly broad variety of [[theoretical computer science]] fundamentals, in particular [[logic in computer science|logic]] calculi, [[formal language]]s, [[automata theory]], and [[program semantics]], but also [[type systems]] and [[algebraic data types]] to problems in software and hardware specification and verification.

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| [[Semantics (computer science)|Formal semantics]]
| [[Type theory]]
| [[Compiler design]]
| [[Programming language]]s
| [[Formal verification]]
| [[Automated theorem proving]]
|}

===Applied computer science===

====Computer graphics and visualization====
{{main|Computer graphics (computer science)}}
Computer graphics is the study of digital visual contents and involves the synthesis and manipulation of image data. The study is connected to many other fields in computer science, including [[computer vision]], [[image processing]], and [[computational geometry]], and is heavily applied in the fields of special effects and [[video game]]s.
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| [[2D computer graphics]]
| [[Computer animation]]
| [[Rendering (computer graphics)|Rendering]]
| [[Mixed reality]]
| [[Virtual reality]]
| [[Solid modeling]]
|}

====Image and sound processing====
{{main|Data processing}}
[[Information]] can take the form of images, sound, video or other multimedia. [[Bit]]s of information can be streamed via [[signal]]s. Its [[Data processing|processing]] is the central notion of informatics, the European view on computing, which studies information processing algorithms independently of the type of information carrier – whether it is electrical, mechanical or biological. This field plays important role in [[information theory]], [[telecommunications]], [[information engineering]] and has applications in [[medical image computing]] and [[speech synthesis]], among others. ''What is the lower bound on the complexity of [[fast Fourier transform]] algorithms?'' is one of the [[List of unsolved problems in computer science|unsolved problems in theoretical computer science]].
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| [[Fast Fourier transform|FFT algorithms]]
| [[Image processing]]
| [[Speech recognition]]
| [[Data compression]]
| [[Medical image computing]]
| [[Speech synthesis]]
|}

====Computational science, finance and engineering====
{{main|Computational science|Computational finance|Computational engineering}}
{{See also|List of computer-aided engineering software}}

[[Scientific computing]] (or computational science) is the field of study concerned with constructing [[scientific modelling|mathematical models]] and [[numerical analysis|quantitative analysis]] techniques and using computers to analyze and solve [[scientific]] problems. A major usage of scientific computing is [[simulation]] of various processes, including computational [[fluid dynamics]], physical, electrical, and electronic systems and circuits, as well as societies and social situations (notably war games) along with their habitats, among many others. Modern computers enable optimization of such designs as complete aircraft. Notable in electrical and electronic circuit design are SPICE,<ref>Muhammad H. Rashid, (2016). ''SPICE for Power Electronics and Electric Power''. CRC Press. p. 6. {{ISBN|978-1-4398-6047-2}}.</ref> as well as software for physical realization of new (or modified) designs. The latter includes essential design software for [[integrated circuit]]s.<ref>{{Cite news|title=What is an integrated circuit (IC)? A vital component of modern electronics|url=https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/integrated-circuit-IC|access-date=2021-11-15|website=WhatIs.com|language=en|archive-date=November 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115153823/https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/integrated-circuit-IC|url-status=live}}</ref>

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| [[Numerical analysis]]
| [[Computational physics]]
| [[Computational chemistry]]
| [[Bioinformatics]]
| [[Neuroinformatics]]
| [[Psychoinformatics]]
| [[Medical informatics]]
| [[Computational engineering]]
| [[Computational musicology]]
|}

====Human–computer interaction====
{{main|Human–computer interaction}}

Human–computer interaction (HCI) is the field of study and research concerned with the design and use of [[Computer|computer systems]], mainly based on the analysis of the interaction between [[Human|humans]] and [[Interface (computing)|computer interfaces]]. HCI has several [[Human–computer interaction#Current research|subfields]] that focus on the relationship between [[Emotion|emotions]], [[social behavior]] and [[Electroencephalography|brain activity]] with [[Computer|computers]].
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|[[Affective computing]]
|[[Brain–computer interface]]
|[[Human-centered design]]
|[[Physical computing]]
|[[Social computing]]
|}

====Software engineering====
{{main|Software engineering}}
{{see also|Computer programming}}
Software engineering is the study of designing, implementing, and modifying the software in order to ensure it is of high quality, affordable, maintainable, and fast to build. It is a systematic approach to software design, involving the application of engineering practices to software. Software engineering deals with the organizing and analyzing of software—it does not just deal with the creation or manufacture of new software, but its internal arrangement and maintenance. For example [[software testing]], [[systems engineering]], [[technical debt]] and [[software development process]]es.

====Artificial intelligence====
{{main|Artificial intelligence|Bio-inspired computing}}

Artificial intelligence (AI) aims to or is required to synthesize goal-orientated processes such as problem-solving, decision-making, environmental adaptation, learning, and communication found in humans and animals. From its origins in [[cybernetics]] and in the [[History of artificial intelligence|Dartmouth Conference]] (1956), artificial intelligence research has been necessarily cross-disciplinary, drawing on areas of expertise such as [[applied mathematics]], symbolic logic, [[semiotics]], [[electrical engineering]], [[philosophy of mind]], [[neurophysiology]], and [[social intelligence]]. AI is associated in the popular mind with [[Robotics|robotic development]], but the main field of practical application has been as an embedded component in areas of [[software development]], which require computational understanding. The starting point in the late 1940s was Alan Turing's question "[[Computing Machinery and Intelligence|Can computers think?]]", and the question remains effectively unanswered, although the [[Turing test]] is still used to assess computer output on the scale of human intelligence. But the automation of evaluative and predictive tasks has been increasingly successful as a substitute for human monitoring and intervention in domains of computer application involving complex real-world data.

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| [[Computational learning theory]]
| [[Computer vision]]
| [[Artificial neural network|Neural networks]]
| [[Planning and scheduling]]
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| [[Natural language processing]]
| [[Algorithmic game theory|Computational game theory]]
| [[Evolutionary computation]]
| [[Autonomic computing]]
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| [[Knowledge representation and reasoning|Representation and reasoning]]
| [[Pattern recognition]]
| [[Robotics]]
| [[Swarm intelligence]]
|}

===Computer systems===

====Computer architecture and microarchitecture====
{{main|Computer architecture|Microarchitecture|Computer engineering}}

Computer architecture, or digital computer organization, is the conceptual design and fundamental operational structure of a computer system. It focuses largely on the way by which the central processing unit performs internally and accesses addresses in memory.<ref>{{cite web|last=A. Thisted|first=Ronald|title=Computer Architecture |url=http://galton.uchicago.edu/~thisted/Distribute/comparch.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://galton.uchicago.edu/~thisted/Distribute/comparch.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|publisher=The University of Chicago|date=April 7, 1997}}</ref> Computer engineers study [[computational logic]] and design of computer hardware, from individual [[Processor (computing)|processor]] components, [[microcontroller]]s, [[personal computer]]s to [[supercomputer]]s and [[embedded system]]s. The term "architecture" in computer literature can be traced to the work of Lyle R. Johnson and [[Frederick P. Brooks Jr.]], members of the Machine Organization department in IBM's main research center in 1959.

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| [[Processing unit]]
| [[Microarchitecture]]
| [[Multiprocessing]]
| [[Processor design]]
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| [[Ubiquitous computing]]
| [[Systems architecture]]
| [[Operating system]]s
| [[Input/output]]
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| [[Embedded system]]
| [[Real-time computing]]
| [[Dependability]]
| [[Interpreter (computing)|Interpreter]]
|}

====Concurrent, parallel and distributed computing====
{{main|Concurrency (computer science)|Distributed computing}}
Concurrency is a property of systems in which several computations are executing simultaneously, and potentially interacting with each other.<ref>Jiacun Wang, (2017). ''Real-Time Embedded Systems''. Wiley. p. 12. {{ISBN|978-1-119-42070-5}}.</ref> A number of mathematical models have been developed for general concurrent computation including [[Petri net]]s, [[process calculi]] and the [[parallel random access machine]] model.<ref>Gordana Dodig-Crnkovic; Raffaela Giovagnoli, (2013). ''Computing Nature: Turing Centenary Perspective''. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 247. {{ISBN|978-3-642-37225-4}}.</ref> When multiple computers are connected in a network while using concurrency, this is known as a distributed system. Computers within that distributed system have their own private memory, and information can be exchanged to achieve common goals.<ref>Simon Elias Bibri (2018). ''Smart Sustainable Cities of the Future: The Untapped Potential of Big Data Analytics and Context-Aware Computing for Advancing Sustainability''. Springer. p. 74. {{ISBN|978-3-319-73981-6}}.</ref>

====Computer networks====
{{main|Computer network}}
This branch of computer science aims to manage networks between computers worldwide.

====Computer security and cryptography====
{{main|Computer security|Cryptography}}
Computer security is a branch of computer technology with the objective of protecting information from unauthorized access, disruption, or modification while maintaining the accessibility and usability of the system for its intended users.

Historical [[cryptography]] is the art of writing and deciphering secret messages. Modern cryptography is the scientific study of problems relating to distributed computations that can be attacked.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Katz|first=Jonathan|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/137325053|title=Introduction to modern cryptography|date=2008|publisher=Chapman & Hall/CRC|others=Yehuda Lindell|isbn=978-1-58488-551-1|location=Boca Raton|oclc=137325053|access-date=November 17, 2021|archive-date=May 6, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220506003141/http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/137325053|url-status=live}}</ref> Technologies studied in modern cryptography include symmetric and asymmetric [[encryption]], [[digital signature]]s, [[cryptographic hash function]]s, [[key-agreement protocol]]s, [[blockchain]], [[zero-knowledge proof]]s, and [[garbled circuit]]s.

====Databases and data mining====
{{main|Database|Data mining}}
A database is intended to organize, store, and retrieve large amounts of data easily. Digital databases are managed using database management systems to store, create, maintain, and search data, through [[database model]]s and [[query language]]s. Data mining is a process of discovering patterns in large data sets.

==Discoveries==
The philosopher of computing [[William J. Rapaport|Bill Rapaport]] noted three ''Great Insights of Computer Science'':<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cse.buffalo.edu/~rapaport/computation.html|title=What Is Computation?|publisher=State University of New York at Buffalo|last=Rapaport|first=William J.|date=20 September 2013|access-date=August 31, 2013|archive-date=February 14, 2001|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010214002845/http://www.cse.buffalo.edu/~rapaport/computation.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]]'s, [[George Boole]]'s, [[Alan Turing]]'s, [[Claude Shannon]]'s, and [[Samuel Morse]]'s insight: there are only ''two objects'' that a computer has to deal with in order to represent "anything".{{refn |group="note"|The word "anything" is written in quotation marks because there are things that computers cannot do. One example is: to answer the question if an arbitrary given computer program will eventually finish or run forever (the [[Halting problem]]).}}
:: All the information about any computable problem can be represented using only 0 and 1 (or any other bistable pair that can flip-flop between two easily distinguishable states, such as "on/off", "magnetized/de-magnetized", "high-voltage/low-voltage", etc.).
{{see also|Digital physics}}
* [[Alan Turing]]'s insight: there are only ''five actions'' that a computer has to perform in order to do "anything".
:: Every algorithm can be expressed in a language for a computer consisting of only five basic instructions:<ref>B. Jack Copeland, (2012). ''Alan Turing's Electronic Brain: The Struggle to Build the ACE, the World's Fastest Computer''. OUP Oxford. p. 107. {{ISBN|978-0-19-960915-4}}.</ref>
::* move left one location;
::* move right one location;
::* read symbol at current location;
::* print 0 at current location;
::* print 1 at current location.
{{see also|Turing machine}}
* [[Corrado Böhm]] and Giuseppe Jacopini's insight: there are only ''three ways of combining'' these actions (into more complex ones) that are needed in order for a computer to do "anything".<ref>Charles W. Herbert, (2010). ''An Introduction to Programming Using Alice 2.2''. Cengage Learning. p. 122. {{ISBN|0-538-47866-7}}.</ref>

:: Only three rules are needed to combine any set of basic instructions into more complex ones:
::*''sequence'': first do this, then do that;
::* '' selection'': IF such-and-such is the case, THEN do this, ELSE do that;
::* ''repetition'': WHILE such-and-such is the case, DO this.
:: The three rules of Boehm's and Jacopini's insight can be further simplified with the use of [[goto]] (which means it is more elementary than [[structured programming]]).
{{see also|Structured program theorem}}

==Programming paradigms==
{{main|Programming paradigm}}

Programming languages can be used to accomplish different tasks in different ways. Common programming paradigms include:
* [[Functional programming]], a style of building the structure and elements of computer programs that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It is a declarative programming paradigm, which means programming is done with expressions or declarations instead of statements.<ref>Md. Rezaul Karim; Sridhar Alla, (2017). ''Scala and Spark for Big Data Analytics: Explore the concepts of functional programming, data streaming, and machine learning''. Packt Publishing Ltd. p. 87. {{ISBN|978-1-78355-050-0}}.</ref>
* [[Imperative programming]], a programming paradigm that uses statements that change a program's state.<ref>Lex Sheehan, (2017). ''Learning Functional Programming in Go: Change the way you approach your applications using functional programming in Go''. Packt Publishing Ltd. p. 16. {{ISBN|978-1-78728-604-7}}.</ref> In much the same way that the imperative mood in natural languages expresses commands, an imperative program consists of commands for the computer to perform. Imperative programming focuses on describing how a program operates.
* [[Object-oriented programming]], a programming paradigm based on the concept of "objects", which may contain data, in the form of fields, often known as attributes; and code, in the form of procedures, often known as methods. A feature of objects is that an object's procedures can access and often modify the data fields of the object with which they are associated. Thus object-oriented computer programs are made out of objects that interact with one another.<ref>Evelio Padilla, (2015). ''Substation Automation Systems: Design and Implementation''. Wiley. p. 245. {{ISBN|978-1-118-98730-8}}.</ref>
* [[Service-oriented programming]], a programming paradigm that uses "services" as the unit of computer work, to design and implement integrated business applications and [[mission critical]] software programs.

Many languages offer support for multiple paradigms, making the distinction more a matter of style than of technical capabilities.<ref>{{cite web |title=Multi-Paradigm Programming Language |url=https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/multiparadigmlanguage.html |website=MDN Web Docs |publisher=[[Mozilla Foundation]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130821052407/https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/multiparadigmlanguage.html |archive-date=21 August 2013}}</ref>

==Research==
{{further|List of computer science conferences|Category:Computer science journals}}
Conferences are important events for computer science research. During these conferences, researchers from the public and private sectors present their recent work and meet. Unlike in most other academic fields, in computer science, the prestige of [[conference papers]] is greater than that of journal publications.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Meyer|first1=Bertrand|title=Viewpoint: Research evaluation for computer science|journal=Communications of the ACM|date=April 2009|volume=25|issue=4|pages=31–34|doi=10.1145/1498765.1498780|s2cid=8625066|url=https://pure.itu.dk/portal/da/publications/b474cea0-8288-11dd-b116-000ea68e967b }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Patterson|first1=David|title=Evaluating Computer Scientists and Engineers For Promotion and Tenure|url=http://cra.org/resources/bp-view/evaluating_computer_scientists_and_engineers_for_promotion_and_tenure/|publisher=Computing Research Association|date=August 1999|access-date=July 19, 2015|archive-date=July 22, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722020941/http://cra.org/resources/bp-view/evaluating_computer_scientists_and_engineers_for_promotion_and_tenure/|url-status=live}}</ref> One proposed explanation for this is the quick development of this relatively new field requires rapid review and distribution of results, a task better handled by conferences than by journals.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Fortnow|first1=Lance|title=Viewpoint: Time for Computer Science to Grow Up|journal=Communications of the ACM|date=August 2009|volume=52|issue=8|pages=33–35|doi=10.1145/1536616.1536631|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==See also==
<!-- Please respect alphabetical order -->
{{Div col}}
* [[Computer science education]]
* [[Glossary of computer science]]
* [[List of computer scientists]]
* [[List of computer science awards]]
* [[List of pioneers in computer science]]
* [[Outline of computer science]]
{{Div col end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|first=Allen B.|last=Tucker|title=Computer Science Handbook|edition=2nd|publisher=Chapman and Hall/CRC|year=2004|isbn=978-1-58488-360-9}}
* {{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Computer Science|edition=4th|first1=Anthony|last1=Ralston|author-link=Anthony Ralston|first2=Edwin D.|last2=Reilly|first3=David|last3=Hemmendinger|publisher=Grove's Dictionaries|year=2000|isbn=978-1-56159-248-7|url=http://portal.acm.org/ralston.cfm|access-date=February 6, 2011|archive-date=June 8, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200608005417/https://dl.acm.org/doi/book/10.5555/1074100|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/milestonesincomp0000reil|url-access=registration|title=Milestones in Computer Science and Information Technology|author=Edwin D. Reilly|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2003|isbn=978-1-57356-521-9}}
* {{cite book|first=Donald E.|last=Knuth|author-link=Donald Knuth|title=Selected Papers on Computer Science|publisher=CSLI Publications, [[Cambridge University Press]]|year=1996}}
* {{cite book|ref=COLLIER|last=Collier|first=Bruce|title=The little engine that could've: The calculating machines of Charles Babbage|publisher=Garland Publishing Inc|isbn=978-0-8240-0043-1|url=http://robroy.dyndns.info/collier/index.html|year=1990|access-date=May 4, 2013|archive-date=January 20, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070120190231/http://robroy.dyndns.info/collier/index.html|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|ref=Haiken|first=Bernard|last=Cohen|title=Howard Aiken, Portrait of a computer pioneer|publisher=The MIT press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-262-53179-5}}
* {{cite book|first=Matti|last=Tedre|title=The Science of Computing: Shaping a Discipline|publisher=CRC Press, [[Taylor & Francis]]|year=2014}}
* {{cite book|title=The origins of Digital computers, Selected Papers|last=Randell|first=Brian|author-link=Brian Randell |year=1973|publisher=Springer-Verlag|isbn=978-3-540-06169-4}}
* {{cite journal |last=Randell |first=Brian |author-link=Brian Randell |url=http://www.cs.ncl.ac.uk/research/pubs/articles/papers/398.pdf |date=October–December 1982 |title=From Analytical Engine to Electronic Digital Computer: The Contributions of Ludgate, Torres, and Bush |journal=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=327–341 |doi=10.1109/mahc.1982.10042 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055055/http://www.cs.ncl.ac.uk/publications/articles/papers/398.pdf |archive-date=2013-09-21 |s2cid=1737953}}
* Peter J. Denning. ''[http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1053309&coll=&dl=ACM&CFID=15151515&CFTOKEN=6184618 Is computer science science?]'', Communications of the ACM, April 2005.
* Peter J. Denning, ''[http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=971303&dl=ACM&coll=&CFID=15151515&CFTOKEN=6184618 Great principles in computing curricula]'', Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, 2004.

<!--
* Research evaluation for computer science, Informatics Europe [http://www.eqanie.eu/media/Como%20Conference/Tanca-Research_Assessment_A_new_Initiative_by_Informatics_Europe.pdf report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018181136/http://www.eqanie.eu/media/Como%20Conference/Tanca-Research_Assessment_A_new_Initiative_by_Informatics_Europe.pdf |date=October 18, 2017 }}. Shorter journal version: Bertrand Meyer, Christine Choppy, Jan van Leeuwen and Jorgen Staunstrup, ''Research evaluation for computer science'', in [[Communications of the ACM]], vol. 52, no. 4, pp.&nbsp;31–34, April 2009.

===Curriculum and classification===
* [[Association for Computing Machinery]]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080828002940/http://www.acm.org/class/1998/overview.html 1998 ACM Computing Classification System]. 1998.
* Joint Task Force of Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), [[Association for Information Systems]] (AIS) and [[IEEE Computer Society]] (IEEE CS). [https://web.archive.org/web/20141021153204/http://www.acm.org/education/curric_vols/CC2005-March06Final.pdf Computing Curricula 2005: The Overview Report]. September 30, 2005.
* [[Norman Gibbs]], Allen Tucker. "A model curriculum for a liberal arts degree in computer science". ''Communications of the ACM'', Volume 29 Issue 3, March 1986.
-->
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Wikibooks|Informatics Practices for Class XI (CBSE)}}
{{Sister project links| wikt=computer science|c=Category:Computer science | b=Computer science | q=Computer science|n=no|s=no| v=Computer science | voy=no | species=no | d=no}}
{{Library resources box}}
* [http://dblp.uni-trier.de/ DBLP Computer Science Bibliography]
* [http://www.acm.org/ Association for Computing Machinery]
* [https://www.ieee.org/ Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]

{{Computer science}}
{{Glossaries of science and engineering}}
{{Software engineering}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Computer science| ]]
[[Category:Formal sciences]]John_Silva_Meehan

{{Short description|American publisher (1790–1863)}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name                = John Silva Meehan
| image               = silva meehan.jpg
| alt                 = A black and white portrait of an older John Silva Meehan
| caption             = Meehan, 1850s
| office              = [[Librarian of Congress]]
| president           = {{Clist|[[Andrew Jackson]]|[[Martin Van Buren]]|[[William Henry Harrison]]|[[John Tyler]]|[[James K. Polk]]|[[Zachary Taylor]]|[[Millard Fillmore]]|[[Franklin Pierce]]|[[James Buchanan]]|[[Abraham Lincoln]]}}
| term_start          = May 28, 1829
| term_end            = May 24, 1861
| predecessor         = [[George Watterston]]
| successor           = [[John Gould Stephenson]]
| birth_date          = {{Birth date|1790|02|06}}
| birth_place         = New York City, U.S.
| death_date          = {{Death date and age|1863|04|24|1790|02|06}}
| death_place         = [[Capitol Hill]], Washington, D.C., U.S.
| occupation          = {{hlist|Publisher|printer|newspaper editor}}
| spouse              = Margaret Jones Monington
| children            = 7
| party               = [[Jacksonian Democrats|Jacksonian]] (1825–1828)
| module = {{Infobox military person|embed=yes
| allegiance    = United States
| branch         = [[United States Navy|Navy]]
| serviceyears  = 1815
| rank              = [[Midshipman]]
| battles_label      = Conflict
| battles            = {{tree list}}
* [[War of 1812]]
{{tree list/end}}
|}}
}}

'''John Silva Meehan''' (February 6, 1790 – April 24, 1863) was an American publisher, printer, and newspaper editor.  He served as the [[librarian of Congress]] from 1829 to 1861.

Born in New York City, Meehan worked as a printer in his youth. He briefly served in the [[U.S. Navy]] during the last few months of the [[War of 1812]]. He returned without seeing combat and began work as a publisher in [[Philadelphia]] alongside fellow printer Robert Anderson, publishing a [[Baptist]] religious journal. After the firm moved to [[Washington, D.C.]], in early 1822, Meehan began editing and publishing the Baptist weekly newspaper ''The Columbian Star''. Leaving the ''Star'' in late 1825, Meehan nominally purchased the ''[[City of Washington Gazette]]'' on direction from [[Andrew Jackson]]'s presidential campaign, renaming the paper the ''United States' Telegraph'' and taking an immensely partisan stance. Jackson supporters considered Meehan unable to properly spearhead the press campaign. Control over the paper gradually shifted towards editor and publisher [[Duff Green]], with Meehan officially leaving the paper in October 1826; however, he continued to serve as Green's editorial assistant until 1829.

Following a purge of numerous incumbent officials in the aftermath of [[1828 United States presidential election|Jackson's 1828 election]], Meehan was appointed as librarian of Congress via the [[spoils system]] and with Green's urging, replacing the staunch anti-Jacksonian [[George Watterston]]. Meehan's tenure as librarian saw the steady growth of the [[Library of Congress]], collaborating with longstanding [[United States Congressional Joint Committee on the Library|Joint Committee on the Library]] chair [[James Pearce]] for most of his tenure. A large fire in December 1851 destroyed 35,000 of the library's 55,000 books. Meehan and Pearce oversaw the reconstruction of the library after the disaster, restocking it with substantial purchases of books and rebuilding the main hall. The [[1860 United States presidential election|election]] of [[Abraham Lincoln]] in 1860 prompted Meehan's removal in 1861 in favor of Indiana physician [[John Gould Stephenson]]. Largely unbothered by this, he retired gracefully and died suddenly in 1863. Both Stephenson and later historians were generally critical of Meehan's tenure, noting that he mainly deferred to the Joint Committee on library policy, leaving the library's archaic catalog system unchanged, and failing to make any progress in transforming the institution into a true [[national library]].

== Early life ==
John Silva Meehan was born in New York City on February 6, 1790. Little is recorded of his early life. He attended school in New York and later entered work as a printer. In 1811 or 1812, he moved to [[Burlington, New Jersey]], to work as a printer at Lexicon Press under publisher David Allinson. There, Meehan helped print Richard S. Coxe's ''New Critical Pronouncing Dictionary of the English Language''. He met Margaret Jones Monington, from Burlington, and married her in 1814.{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|p=3}}{{Sfn|Mearns|1947|p=36}}

[[File:USS Firefly 1815.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|1857 depiction of the ''[[USS Firefly]]''|alt=A drawing of a ship in choppy seas]]

In January 1815, Meehan returned to New York to enlist in the [[United States Navy|Navy]]. He served as a [[midshipman]] on the [[USS Firefly|USS ''Firefly'']] during the [[War of 1812]]. The ''Firefly'' was the flagship of a small group of commerce raiders in the [[West Indies]]. Shortly afterwards, the ratification of the [[Treaty of Ghent]] concluded the war. The ''Firefly'' did not see action, to the disappointment of Meehan and the rest of the crew. Leaving service in April 1815, he moved to [[Philadelphia]] and declined an offered [[Commission (document)|commission]] in the [[United States Marine Corps|Marine Corps]] to focus on his printing career. His first daughter, Susan, was born the same month.{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|pp=3–4}}{{Sfn|Nappo|2016|p=29}}

== Publishing career ==
[[File:Columbian Star October 22 1824 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Masthead of ''[[The Columbian Star]]'', October 23, 1824|alt=A newspaper masthead]]

In Philadelphia, Meehan partnered with fellow printer Robert Anderson to create the Anderson & Meehan firm. They began publishing the ''Latter Day Luminary'' in 1818, a Baptist General Conference-sponsored religious journal published five times a year. The firm moved to [[Washington, D.C.]], in early 1822, and the ''Luminary'' was shifted to a monthly publication. In February 1822, soon after moving to Washington, Anderson & Meehan also began publishing ''[[The Columbian Star]]'', self-described as an apolitical Baptist weekly newspaper.{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|pp=3–4}}{{Sfn|Millington|1925|p=50}} The two served as the chief editors of the paper for about a year, before editorship was transferred to Reverend James D. Knowles.{{Sfn|Millington|1925|p=50}} Alongside the two regular publications, the firm would occasionally publish other items, such as pamphlets. Anderson left the ''Star'' in early 1823 and the ''Luminary'' by the end of that year, leaving Meehan as the sole publisher. Knowles left the ''Star'' in July 1825, making Meehan the editor of the paper. Six months later Meehan left the paper, seeking not to associate the largely apolitical ''Star'' with his entry into political writing. He transferred publication and editorship of the ''Star'' to [[Baron Stow]] and discontinued the ''Luminary''.{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|pp=3–4}}

=== ''United States' Telegraph'' ===
{{Main article|United States' Telegraph}}

Following his narrow loss in a House [[contingent election]] after the [[1824 United States presidential election|1824 presidential election]], Tennessee senator [[Andrew Jackson]] and his former running mate [[John C. Calhoun]] sought a supportive newspaper in Washington, D.C.{{Sfn|Ewing|1978|p=128}} The Jackson campaign indirectly purchased [[Jonathan Elliot (publisher)|Jonathan Elliot]]'s ''[[City of Washington Gazette]]'' through allies [[William Berkeley Lewis|William B. Lewis]] and [[John Eaton (politician)|John Eaton]]. Although Meehan ostensibly purchased the paper, Eaton likely directed the purchase. Meehan served as the first publisher and chief editor of the paper, which was renamed the ''United States' Telegraph''. The newspaper entered publication on February 6, 1826.{{Sfn|Smith|1981|p=9}}{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|p=4}}{{Sfn|Mearns|1947|p=37}} The ''Telegraph'' was published in weekly, thrice-weekly, and daily editions, available by subscription. From the outset, the paper was immensely partisan, strongly opposed to the election of President [[John Quincy Adams]] and the appointment of Secretary of State [[Henry Clay]]. It declared that these violated "the most sacred principles of [[Constitution of the United States|the Constitution]]" due to the contingent election and adopted the motto "Power is always stealing from the many to the few."{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|pp=4–5}}{{Sfn|Smith|1981|pp=81–82}}

As editor, Meehan heavily criticized the system of executive patronage (also known as the [[spoils system]]). He attacked the appointment of an anti-Jacksonian postmaster in Jackson's hometown of [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]], claiming the appointment was solely made to "mortify" Jackson.{{Sfn|Smith|1981|pp=82–83}} Meehan also emphasized defending Jackson's reputation, describing him as an "abused citizen" and claiming that Jackson was above the political games and corruption that he attributed to the Adams administration. [[National Republican Party|National Republican]]-aligned newspapers began to oppose the ''Telegraph'', with ''[[The National Intelligencer]]'' and [[National Journal (newspaper)|''National Journal'']] claiming Meehan's editorials amounted to "indiscriminate opposition".{{Sfn|Smith|1981|pp=83–84}}

Soon after he acquired the paper, Jacksonians began to worry that Meehan lacked the ferocity and boldness needed to support the campaign. Although Meehan was recognized for his strong anti-Adams advocacy through the ''Telegraph'', the ownership of the paper grew uncomfortable with his perceived inability to mount an effective response against the administration. The lack of transparency around the formation of the ''Telegraph'' invited allegations of conspiracy. The ''[[Richmond Whig]]'' described the paper as "edited by nobody knows whom, supported, nobody knows how".{{Sfn|Smith|1981|pp=81–82}}

Missouri editor and politician [[Duff Green]] was summoned to Washington by prominent Jacksonians to take over the ''Telegraph''.{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|p=26}} He published several editorials in the paper and offered to purchase it after strong rebuttals from the ''National Journal''. Green borrowed large amounts of money from Jacksonian politicians, including Eaton, to finance this purchase. An official deal between Meehan and Green was reached on June 5, 1826, purchasing the paper and its printing office.{{Sfn|Smith|1981|pp=85–86}} Meehan was hired as Green's assistant for a three-year term. Green soon left to travel the country, and Meehan continued serving as the ''de facto'' chief editor of the paper for several months. During this period, Meehan clashed with the pro-administration press on several issues, including Adams' alleged purchase of a [[Billiard table|billiards table]] and the military significance of Jackson's victory in the [[Battle of New Orleans]].{{Sfn|Smith|1981|pp=85–89}}

The last issue of the ''Telegraph'' featuring Meehan's name was published on October 17, 1826. No official statement was made regarding the change of ownership. While working as Green's publisher, Meehan additionally served as the secretary of the board of trustees of the Baptist [[George Washington University|Columbian College]].{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|p=5}}{{Sfn|Smith|1981|p=134}}

== Librarian of Congress ==
=== Appointment ===
Upon Jackson's election in 1828, the incoming administration began a mass shift of government positions in favor of supportive [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] via the [[spoils system]]. [[George Watterston]], the [[librarian of Congress]] since 1815, had strong connections to many of Jackson's opponents, including Henry Clay. Watterston was later described by historian [[David C. Mearns]] as having been a "librarian of one side of the aisle".{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|p=6}}{{Sfn|Ostrowski|2004|pp=107–109}}{{Sfn|Mearns|1947|p=36}} Jackson originally intended to replace Watterston with Charles P. Tutt, but Tutt declined in favor of a position as U.S. Navy Agent at [[Pensacola, Florida|Pensacola]].{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|p=6}}{{Sfn|Nappo|2016|pp=31–32}}

Green wrote to Andrew Jackson on April 23, 1829, recommending Meehan as Watterston's replacement for librarian of Congress. Green, in increasing amounts of debt, wished to hire an assistant editor at a lower rate than that agreed for Meehan.{{Sfn|Smith|1981|p=134}} Biographer Christian Nappo described the letter as significantly embellishing Meehan's scholarly capabilities and his appointment itself as "purely an act of political patronage".{{Sfn|Nappo|2016|pp=31–32}}

{{Block quote
| quote = I am much at a loss to find the terms to express to you the solicitude which I feel on behalf of Mr. Meehan&nbsp;... My personal acquaintance with him commenced in the spring of 1826, when I found him the Editor of the ''Telegraph''. He then relinquished the establishment to me, and accepted a salary of $1200 per annum. I have found him to be an able auxiliary, a faithful friend, and one of those men rarely to be found—a strictly conscientious and pious Christian. His ardent attachment to you, and his devotion to the great principles upon which you have been elected, is surpassed by those of no other individual. He is the father of an amiable family, who are entirely dependent upon his earnings for support. He is a good scholar, a printer and publisher by profession, and of the most amiable and conciliatory manners. He has not, that I know of a single enemy—yet no man has more firmness. So much for the man.
| author = [[Duff Green]]
| source = letter to [[Andrew Jackson]], April 23, 1829{{sfn|Nappo|2016|p=31}}
}}

Meehan was officially appointed as librarian on May 28, 1829. Clay, angered by the appointment, compared Watterston's removal to the burning of the [[Library of Alexandria]].{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|p=6}} The ''[[New-England Palladium]]'' condemned Watterston's removal but conceded that Meehan was ultimately "an amiable and respectable man" and preferable to other possible Jacksonian candidates.{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|p=6}}{{Sfn|Nappo|2016|pp=31–32}} The strongly anti-Jacksonian ''National Journal'' and Meehan's former ''United States' Telegraph'' extensively covered Meehan's appointment, debating the legality of the move. Jacksonian press attacked Watterston's character, describing him as pompous and impractical.{{Sfn|Ostrowski|2004|pp=107–109}}

Debates over the appointment also reflected broader attitudes towards the future of the library. Rather than simply providing for Congress, Watterston sought to transform the [[Library of Congress]] into a comprehensive [[national library]] aimed at the education of the general public, which Jacksonians feared would represent increased federal power. However, Jackson may have been unaware of Watterston's plans when initially appointing Meehan.{{Sfn|Ostrowski|2004|pp=103, 107–109}}{{Sfn|Ostrowski|2000|p=255}}

Watterston himself was indignant at his replacement, describing Meehan as "very ordinary" and unfitting for the Library of Congress.{{Sfn|Ostrowski|2004|pp=107–109}} He repeatedly and unsuccessfully attempted to reclaim the position for the rest of his life, through what biographer John McDonough described as a mix of "cajolery, threats, and flattery".{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|p=6}} Despite his past as a partisan editor, Meehan remained a relatively apolitical librarian, and he retained his position through multiple [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] presidencies.{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|p=22}}

=== Tenure ===
[[File:Capitol of the U.S. at Washington 1825 (cropped).tif|thumb|1825 depiction of the [[U.S. Capitol]]. The Library of Congress would occupy a portion of the building until 1897.{{Sfn|Cole|1972|p=270}}|alt=A painting of the U.S. Capitol in 1825]]

When Meehan took office, the library was situated within the western portion of the [[U.S. Capitol]], and contained about 16,000 books.{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|pp=6–8}} He wrote in irritation at the conditions within the library, describing the various maintenance tasks needed to restore damaged books, clean shelves, and remove [[Bookworm (insect)|bookworms]]. In July 1832, Congress approved expansions to the [[Law Library of Congress]], designating a nearby room to hold the slightly over 2,000 [[law book]]s held in the collections. Around this time, Meehan appointed his son C.&nbsp;H.&nbsp;Wharton Meehan, previously employed as his assistant, to head the Law Library.{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|pp=6–8}}{{Sfn|Nappo|2016|pp=33–34}}

From the outset, Meehan collaborated with the Congressional [[United States Congressional Joint Committee on the Library|Joint Committee on the Library]], often deferring to its advice regardless of partisan lines. He worked closely with the [[Democratic-Republican Party|Democratic-Republican]] [[Edward Everett]] during the early 1830s. Maryland Senator [[James Pearce]] was appointed chairman of the Joint Committee in 1845, beginning a long-running period of close collaboration between him and Meehan. Historian Carl Ostrowski described Meehan as having "never made a move without first consulting Pearce".{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|pp=9–11}}{{Sfn|Ostrowski|2000|p=257}} Ostrowski characterized the Joint Committee during this period as negligent to the library, often not meeting or failing to achieve a quorum.{{Sfn|Ostrowski|2004|p=113}}

The Joint Committee was generally on the forefront of management during the 1830s and 1840s. ''[[National Intelligencer]]'' coverage in the mid-1830s attributed the Library's holdings to various members of the committee, briefly praising Meehan for his "civility and attention" to visitors.{{Sfn|Ostrowski|2004|pp=109–110}} In contrast to Watterston's prominent role in discussion of American libraries, he is not mentioned within 1830s periodicals on American libraries.{{Sfn|Ostrowski|2004|pp=109–110}}

==== Cataloguing and acquisitions ====
A steady appropriation of {{Usd|5,000}} a year for the purchase of books, plus an additional {{Usd|1,000}}–{{Usd|2,000}} for law books, was allocated to Meehan throughout his career with occasional exceptions. Meehan steadily acquired books, although he was criticized for prioritizing the acquisition of popular books over scholarly concerns.{{Sfn|Nappo|2016|pp=33–34}}{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|p=8}}{{Sfn|Ostrowski|2004|p=124}} Journalist [[Anne Royall]] rebuked him for his purchasing habits, claiming he had failed to "anticipate the research needs of legislators or scholars" and criticizing the acquisition of numerous books intended for [[Sunday school]] students.{{Sfn|Nappo|2016|pp=33–34}} Two major opportunities were presented to purchase expansive collections but were both denied by Congress, with Meehan doing little to advocate for the prospect. An 1836 offer to purchase Russian nobleman [[Dmitry Buturlin]]'s multilingual collection of 25,000 books was denied by a 17–16 vote. An offer in 1844 to acquire the [[Durazzo family]] library, containing over 10,000 volumes, was rejected for largely containing non-English literature.{{Sfn|Nappo|2016|pp=33–34}}{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|p=9}}

Classification systems in the library were archaic, with shelves placed in accordance with a modified version of [[Thomas Jefferson]]'s original classification schema, itself based off the [[Francis Bacon|Baconian]] conceptualization of knowledge. Books were generally categorized by subject and within subjects by size.{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|pp=6–8}}{{Sfn|Ostrowski|2004|p=121}} Library catalogs divided books by subject, with books within each subject listed alphabetically. Many years passed between different general catalogs of the library, requiring the consultation of additional supplementary listings.{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|pp=6–8}} A new catalog was produced in 1839, the first since 1830. The total number of volumes in the library had increased to around 30,000, encompassing 10,746 titles.{{Sfn|Ostrowski|2004|p=121}} Over time, the time-intensive task of cataloging new entries was delegated to Meehan's assistant, E.&nbsp;B.&nbsp;Stelle. The limited space and resources available to the library strongly limited the number of books which could be received. In 1849, Meehan wrote to the library's book agent [[Obadiah Rich]], noting that the "rooms for the accommodation of our Library are now so thoroughly filled, that we find it very difficult to take in any more books."{{Sfn|Ostrowski|2000|p=267}} Due to his reputation as a skilled businessman, Meehan was tasked by Congress to manage and book-keep what biographer John McDonough labeled a "bewildering variety of special funds" in addition to his duties within the library. Many of these were publishing or printing funds, with specific funds for the republication of the works of [[John Adams]], Thomas Jefferson, [[Alexander Hamilton]], and [[James Madison]], as well as publications on the [[United States Exploring Expedition]] and the Library of Congress catalog. Additional funds placed on Meehan's caseload included the funding for [[George Peter Alexander Healy|G.&nbsp;P.&nbsp;A.&nbsp;Healy]]'s portraits of presidents, a fund to acquire art for display at the Capitol, and the [[United States Botanic Garden]] Fund, which at times forced Meehan to supervise the garden's workers and handle correspondence with Congressmen seeking plant specimens for their home gardens.{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|p=12}}[[File:Alexandre Vattemare Boston.png|alt=A black and white photograph of an aged Alexandre Vattemare near the end of his life|thumb|[[Alexandre Vattemare]]'s ineffective attempts at a transatlantic document exchange system frustrated Meehan.]]In 1840, French [[ventriloquist]] and actor [[Alexandre Vattemare]] received federal support for his proposed government document exchange system between the United States and France. Meehan provided Vattemare with 700 volumes of congressional documents, an amount "said to be twice as large as any in [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]]".{{Sfn|Gwinn|2010|p=109}} Widespread American enthusiasm for the program led to a massive quantity of documents, which Vattemare was unable to manage effectively. Meehan grew increasingly upset with the poor condition of shipments received through the program, describing the documents as poor quality and incomplete.{{Sfn|Gwinn|2010|pp=111–112}}{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|pp=20–21}} At least two French diplomatic officials contacted Meehan and asked him not to pursue exchanges through Vattemare.{{Sfn|Ostrowski|2004|p=113}} Congress terminated the program in June 1853. Despite this, Vattemare continued sporadic and unwanted shipments of books to the Library of Congress. The final shipment was sent in 1858, leading to a frustrated response from Meehan and the return of Vattemare's shipment, unopened.{{Sfn|Gwinn|2010|pp=111–112}}

==== Fire of 1851 and aftermath ====
Slightly before 8:00{{Nbsp}}am on December 24, 1851, [[1851 Library of Congress fire|a large fire]] broke out in the main room of the Library of Congress. Meehan was quickly summoned to the scene. Freezing temperatures impaired fire hoses, slowing efforts to put out the fire. While the main room was essentially unsalvageable, books in adjacent rooms were quickly moved to safety. A number of [[fire engine]] crews, alongside a group of nearby [[United States Marine Corps|Marines]], were able to extinguish the blaze by around 11:00{{Nbsp}}am. About 35,000 of the library's 55,000 books were destroyed, alongside various paintings and statues. An inquiry was launched over the coming days to investigate the cause of the fire: after testimony from Meehan, [[Thomas Ustick Walter|Thomas U. Walter]], the [[Architect of the Capitol]], determined that the fire was sparked by the timbers of library alcoves extending into a [[chimney-flue]]. Any potential censures or charges were dismissed.{{Sfn|Nappo|2016|pp=35–36}}{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|pp=12–13}}

[[File:James Alfred Pearce, standing.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Senator [[James Pearce]] served as Meehan's partner and ally for much of his tenure as librarian.|alt=A black and white photo of James Pearce]]

Pearce comforted Meehan in the aftermath of the 1851 fire, leading him to describe Pearce as "so eminent a gentleman, and so discriminating a friend".{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|p=15}} Together with Walter, they worked steadily on rebuilding efforts over the course of 1852. Congress authorized various appropriations to finance the reconstruction of the library and the repurchase of lost books. By March 1852, temporary facilities for the library had been finished. The construction process of the main library faced numerous delays, irritating Meehan. While Walter had promised in March that the work would be completed in three months, the reconstruction of the main room was not finished until early 1853. Despite these delays, Meehan was extremely pleased with the library room, calling it "truly beautiful".{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|p=15}}[[File:Library of Congress 1853 (cropped).jpg|alt=A drawing showing the interior of a multistory library|thumb|View of the library {{Circa|1853}}, following rebuilding]]Meehan commissioned [[Rich Brothers]], a London-based book dealing firm, to restock the library. His purchasing efforts were criticized by an anonymous two-part ''[[National Intelligencer]]'' article (sometimes attributed to [[Smithsonian Institution|Smithsonian]] librarian [[Charles Coffin Jewett]]) stating that an agent should have been sent overseas to purchase books and that the Library of Congress should have attempted to become "a systematic collection of books chosen with competent bibliographic learning for a specific and well-defined purpose".{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|p=16}}{{Sfn|Nappo|2016|p=36}} Meehan rebuked the anonymous author, writing that such efforts would place "Congress in a position which admits that they cannot select the books they need."{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|p=16}}

Meehan diligently produced various "want lists" based on earlier catalogs.{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|pp=16–17}} Although control over what books the library was to purchase had been shifted from the Joint Committee to the librarian of Congress, Meehan reassured Pearce that the prior system was still in effect and that he did not intend to expand his control over book acquisition.{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|pp=16–17}}{{Sfn|Ostrowski|2000|p=260}} Congressman and educational reformer [[Horace Mann]] submitted a resolution to the committee shortly before his congressional retirement in March 1853, calling for the library to accept any of the lost books if offered at a cheaper price than other sellers. This was strongly opposed by Pearce and Meehan, who preferred the ease of purchases through the Rich Brothers. In response, they waited out Mann's retirement and the beginning of the [[33rd United States Congress]] and continued the previous path.{{Sfn|Ostrowski|2000|p=260}}

The library's collections were restored by early 1856, following the purchase of 36,000 books at a "cost very far below the prices given for the lost books" through Rich Brothers.{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|p=20}} Increased annual funding for the library, on top of various special appropriations, enabled the rapid growth of the library over the following years.{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|p=18}} An attempt by Jewett and the Smithsonian Institution to re-catalog the library ended after criticism from Meehan. Rumors that President [[Franklin Pierce]] had appointed a new librarian of Congress troubled Meehan. After consultation with Pearce, he met with Secretary of War [[Jefferson Davis]], who reassured him that the rumors were unfounded. Secretary of State [[Lewis Cass]] of the succeeding Buchanan administration also reaffirmed Meehan's position as librarian.{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|pp=21–22}}

=== Removal ===
Following [[1860 United States presidential election|the election]] of [[Abraham Lincoln]] and the ensuing [[Ordinance of Secession|secession of the southern states]] in late 1860 and early 1861, Meehan's position became increasingly unstable. [[Ainsworth Rand Spofford|Ainsworth Spofford]] described him as a "very ancient fossil", and rumors began to circulate of pro-Southern sympathies.{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|pp=22–23}} Pearce wrote to Lincoln in March 1861, asking that Meehan be allowed to continue his role as librarian. Following extensive lobbying and support from various Midwestern Republicans, Indiana physician and Lincoln campaign delegate [[John Gould Stephenson]] was able to convince Lincoln to choose him for the position. Stephenson officially accepted his appointment on May 24, 1861, and Meehan left his duties at the end of the month.{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|pp=22–23}}{{Sfn|Carter|1976|pp=78–81}}

=== Legacy ===
Stephenson, Meehan's successor, complained that the library had fallen into disrepair and neglect. A December 1861 report commissioned by Stephenson (possibly written by Spofford) noted large numbers of uncleaned, miscataloged, and misplaced books. The cataloguing and purchasing systems were also noted to be deficient. Stephenson considered much of Meehan's library staff incompetent and initiated a mass change of staff; Meehan's son, Law Library head C.&nbsp;H.&nbsp;Wharton Meehan, became the sole retained assistant.{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|p=24}}{{Sfn|Carter|1976|p=81}}

Later historians called into question Meehan's abilities as librarian, criticizing his inability to transform the Library of Congress into a [[national library]]. In his 1904 ''History of the Library of Congress'', historian William Dawson Johnston described Meehan as unable to foresee future needs of the library but able to maintain his position due to possessing "the second qualification of a successful administrator, that is, business ability".{{Sfn|Nappo|2016|pp=32–33}}{{Sfn|Johnston|1904|p=215}} Historian Carl Ostrowski was also critical of Meehan's contributions to the library, noting in 2000 that he chose to exercise little influence over any area of library policy.{{Sfn|Ostrowski|2000|p=257}}

== Personal life and death ==
Meehan and his wife Margaret had seven children. Margaret died during childbirth in July 1826, followed by her infant later the same day. Meehan remarried in October 1827 to Rachel T. Monington, his wife's sister, and the two would go on to have two more children together. Only three of Meehan's children outlived him.{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|p=5}}

A year after leaving office, Meehan sought a position as a [[United States Department of the Treasury|Treasury]] clerk due to financial concerns. Pearce and [[William P. Fessenden]] wrote to Treasury Secretary [[Salmon P. Chase]] on Meehan's behalf to advocate for his employment.{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|pp=24–28}} In the afternoon of April 24, 1863, Meehan suddenly died from [[apoplexy]] in his home in [[Capitol Hill]], Washington. An obituary described him as "[leaving] to his family that best inheritance, an unsullied name."{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|p=25}} C.&nbsp;H.&nbsp;Wharton Meehan continued in his role as custodian of the Law Library until his own death in July 1872.{{Sfn|McDonough|1976|p=8}}

== Bibliography ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Carter |first=Constance |date=April 1976 |title=John Gould Stephenson: Largely Known and Much Liked |journal=The Quarterly Journal of the Library of Congress |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=76–91 |issn=0041-7939 |jstor=29781670}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Cole |first=John Y. |author-link=John Y. Cole |date=October 1972 |title=The Main Building of the Library of Congress: A Chronology, 1871–1965 |journal=The Quarterly Journal of the Library of Congress |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=267–270 |issn=0041-7939 |jstor=29781519}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Ewing |first=Gretchen Garst |date=1978 |title=Duff Green, John C. Calhoun, and the Election of 1828 |journal=The South Carolina Historical Magazine |volume=79 |issue=2 |pages=126–137 |issn=0038-3082 |jstor=27567491}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Gwinn |first=Nancy E. |author-link=Nancy E. Gwinn |date=2010 |title=The Library of Congress, the Smithsonian Institution, and the Global Exchange of Government Documents, 1834–1889 |journal=Libraries & the Cultural Record |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=107–122 |doi=10.1353/lac.0.0116 |issn=1932-4855 |jstor=20720643}}
* {{Cite book |last=Johnston |first=William Dawson |date=1904  |title=History of the Library of Congress |url=https://archive.org/details/historyoflibrary01john |volume=I: ''1800–1864'' |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=[[U.S. Government Printing Office]] |oclc=4297664}}
* {{Cite journal |last=McDonough |first=John |date=January 1976 |title=John Silva Meehan: A Gentleman of Amiable Manners |journal=The Quarterly Journal of the Library of Congress |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=2–28 |jstor=29781661 |issn=0041-7939}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mearns |first=David Chambers |title=The Story Up to Now: The Library of Congress, 1800–1946 |date=1947 |publisher=[[U.S. Government Printing Office]] |location=Washington |author-link=David C. Mearns |oclc=947764033}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Millington |first=Yale O. |date=1925 |title=A List of Newspapers Published in the District of Columbia 1820–1850 |journal=The Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America |volume=19 |issue=1/2 |pages=43–65 |doi=10.1086/pbsa.19.1_2.24292626 |issn=0006-128X |jstor=24292626}}
* {{Cite book |last=Nappo |first=Christian A. |date=2016 |title=The Librarians of Congress |location=Lanham, Md. |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=9781442262614}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ostrowski |first=Carl |date=2004 |title=Books, Maps, and Politics: A Cultural History of the Library of Congress, 1783–1861 |location=Amherst, Mass. |publisher=University of Massachusetts Press |isbn=9781613761441 |jstor=j.ctt5vk55t}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Ostrowski |first=Carl |date=2000 |title=James Alfred Pearce and the Question of a National Library in Antebellum America |journal=Libraries & Culture |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=255–277 |issn=0894-8631 |jstor=25548814}}
* {{Cite thesis |last=Smith |first=Kenneth Laurence |date=1981 |title=Duff Green and the United States' Telegraph, 1826–1837 |url=https://scholarworks.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3580&context=etd |degree=PhD |location=Williamsburg, Va. |publisher=College of William & Mary |doi=10.21220/s2-s4xa-9r59}}
{{Refend}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}

{{Librarians of Congress}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Meehan, John Silva}}
[[Category:1790 births]]
[[Category:1863 deaths]]
[[Category:19th-century American newspaper editors]]
[[Category:19th-century American newspaper publishers (people)]]
[[Category:19th-century printers]]
[[Category:American printers]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from New York City]]
[[Category:Editors of Washington, D.C., newspapers]]
[[Category:Journalists from New York City]]
[[Category:Librarians of Congress]]
[[Category:New York (state) Democrats]]
[[Category:People from Burlington, New Jersey]]
[[Category:United States Navy personnel of the War of 1812]]

Lise_Meitner

{{short description|Austrian-Swedish nuclear physicist (1878–1968)}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Pp-protected|small=yes}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox scientist
| image             = Lise Meitner NatGeo.jpg
| caption           = Meitner, {{circa|1960}}
| birth_name        = Elise Meitner
| birth_date        = {{birth date|1878|11|7|df=yes}}
| birth_place       = [[Vienna]], [[Austria-Hungary]]
| death_date        = {{death date and age|1968|10|27|1878|11|17|df=yes}}
| death_place       = [[Cambridge]], England
| resting_place     = [[St James' Church, Bramley]], [[Hampshire]]
| citizenship       = {{plainlist|
* Austria (until 1938)
*[[Statelessness|Stateless]] (1938–1949)
* Sweden (1949–1968)
}}
| alma_mater        = [[University of Vienna]] ([[doctorate]], 1906)
| known_for         = {{plainlist|
* Coining the term ''[[protactinium]]'' (1918)
* Discovering the [[Auger effect]] (1922)
* Discovering [[nuclear fission]] (1938)
}}
| father            = [[Philipp Meitner]]
| relatives         = [[Otto Robert Frisch]] (nephew)
| awards            = {{plainlist|
*[[Lieben Prize]] (1925)
*[[Max Planck Medal]] (1949)
*[[Fellow of the Royal Society#Foreign member|ForMemRS]] (1955)
*[[Otto Hahn Prize]] (1955)
*{{nowrap|[[Wilhelm Exner Medal]] (1960)}}
*[[Enrico Fermi Award]] (1966)
}}
| fields            = [[Nuclear physics]]
| work_institutions = {{plainlist|
*[[Kaiser Wilhelm Institute]]
*[[University of Berlin]]
*{{ill|Manne Siegbahn Laboratory|sv|Manne Siegbahnlaboratoriet}}
*[[Stockholm University College]]
}}
| thesis_title      = {{lang|de|Prüfung einer Formel Maxwells}} ("Examination of a Maxwell Formula")
| thesis_year       = 1906
| doctoral_advisors = [[Hans Benndorf]]<br>[[Franz S. Exner]]
| academic_advisors = [[Ludwig Boltzmann]]<br>[[Max Planck]]
<!-- Not in the article
| doctoral_students = {{plainlist|
*[[Gottfried von Droste]]
*[[Arnold Flammersfeld]]
*[[Kan-Chang Wang]]
*[[Nikolaus Riehl]]
-->
| signature         = Lise Meitner signature.svg
}}
{{Nuclear physics}}
'''Elise Meitner''' (7 November 1878 – 27 October 1968), commonly known as '''Lise Meitner''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|iː|z|ə|_|ˈ|m|aɪ|t|n|ər}} {{respell|LEE|zə|_|MYTE|nər}}; {{IPA|de|ˈliːzə ˈmaɪtnɐ|lang|De-Lise Meitner.ogg}}), was an Austrian-Swedish [[nuclear physicist]] who was instrumental in the [[discovery of nuclear fission]].

Completing her doctoral research in 1906, Meitner became the second woman from the [[University of Vienna]] to earn a doctorate in physics. She spent much of her scientific career in [[Berlin]], where she was a physics professor and a department head at the [[Max Planck Institute for Chemistry|Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry]]. She was the first woman to become a full professor of physics in Germany. She lost her positions in 1935 because of the anti-[[Jewish]] [[Nuremberg Laws]] of [[Nazi Germany]], and the 1938 [[Anschluss]] resulted in the loss of her Austrian citizenship. On 13–14 July 1938, she fled to the Netherlands with the help of [[Dirk Coster]]. She lived in [[Stockholm]] for many years, ultimately becoming a Swedish citizen in 1949, but relocated to Britain in the 1950s to be with family members.

In mid-1938, chemists [[Otto Hahn]] and [[Fritz Strassmann]] at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry demonstrated that [[isotope]]s of [[barium]] could be formed by [[neutron]] bombardment of [[uranium]]. Meitner was informed of their findings by Hahn, and in late December, with her nephew, fellow physicist [[Otto Robert Frisch]], she worked out the physics of this process by correctly interpreting Hahn and Strassmann's experimental data. On 13 January 1939, Frisch replicated the process Hahn and Strassmann had observed. In Meitner and Frisch's report in the February 1939 issue of ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', they gave the process the name "fission". The discovery of nuclear fission led to the development of [[nuclear reactor]]s and [[atomic bomb]]s during [[World War II]].

Meitner did not share the 1944 [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] for nuclear fission, which was awarded to her long-time collaborator Otto Hahn. Several scientists and journalists have called her exclusion "unjust". According to the Nobel Prize archive, she was nominated 19 times for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry between 1924 and 1948, and 30 times for the Nobel Prize in Physics between 1937 and 1967. Despite not having been awarded the Nobel Prize, Meitner was invited to attend the [[Lindau Nobel Laureate Meeting]] in 1962. She received many other honours, including the posthumous naming of element 109 [[meitnerium]] in 1997. Meitner was praised by [[Albert Einstein]] as the "German [[Marie Curie]]."<ref name="wapost" />

==Early years==
Elise Meitner was born on 7 November 1878 into a Jewish upper-middle-class family at the family home in 27 Kaiser Josefstraße in the [[Leopoldstadt]] district of [[Vienna]], the third of eight children of chess master [[Philipp Meitner]] and his wife Hedwig. The birth register of [[Vienna's Jewish community]] lists her as being born on 17 November 1878, but all other documents list her date of birth as 7 November, which is what she used.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=1}} Her father was one of the first Jewish lawyers admitted to practice in Austria.<ref name="wapost">{{cite news |first=Marcia |last=Bartusiak |author-link=Marcia Bartusiak |title=The Woman Behind the Bomb |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/reviews/lisemeitner.htm |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=17 March 1996 |access-date=28 December 2017 |archive-date=8 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308161333/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/reviews/lisemeitner.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> She had two older siblings, Gisela and Auguste (Gusti), and four younger: Moriz (Fritz), Carola (Lola), Frida and Walter; all ultimately pursued an advanced education.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=5–6}} Her father was a [[freethinker]], and she was brought up as such.<ref name="wapost" /> As an adult, she converted to Christianity, following [[Lutheranism]], and was baptised in 1908;<ref>{{cite odnb |last= Roqué |first= Xavier |title= Meitner, Lise (1878–1968), physicist |access-date= 27 October 2009 |url= http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/38821 |doi= 10.1093/ref:odnb/38821 |year= 2004}}</ref>{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=6}} her sisters Gisela and Lola converted to [[Catholicism]] that same year.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=6}} She also adopted the shortened name "Lise".{{sfn|Offereins|2011|pp=69–74}}

==Education==
Meitner's interest in science began when she was eight, when she kept a notebook of her scientific research under her pillow. She was drawn to mathematics and science, and studied the colours of an oil slick, thin films, and reflected light. The only career available to women was teaching, so she attended a high school for girls where she trained as a French teacher. As well as French, her education included bookkeeping, arithmetic, history, geography, science and gymnastics. She completed high school in 1892. Women were not allowed to attend public institutions of higher education in Vienna until 1897, but when this restriction was lifted, the requirement for a [[gymnasium (school)|gymnasium]] education was waived and women only needed to pass the ''[[Maturazeugnis|matura]]'', the secondary school leaving qualification required for university entrance. Her sister Gisela passed the ''matura'' and entered medical school in 1900. Meitner began taking private lessons with two other young women in 1899, cramming the missing years of secondary education into two. Physics was taught by Arthur Szarvasy. In July 1901, they sat an external ''matura'' examination at the [[Akademisches Gymnasium]]. Four out of the fourteen women passed, including Meitner and Henriette Boltzmann, the daughter of physicist [[Ludwig Boltzmann]].{{sfn|Watkins|1984|p=13}}{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=5–9}}

==Research, work and academia==
===University of Vienna===
[[File:Lise Meitner12.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.0|Meitner in 1906]]
Meitner entered the [[University of Vienna]] in October 1901.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=10}} She was particularly inspired by Ludwig Boltzmann and often spoke with enthusiasm about his lectures.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=12–16}} Her dissertation was supervised by [[Franz Exner]] and his assistant [[Hans Benndorf]].{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=17}} Her thesis, titled {{lang|de|Prüfung einer Formel Maxwells}} ("Examination of a [[Maxwell's equations|Maxwell Equation]]"), was submitted on 20 November 1905 and approved on 28 November. She passed an [[oral exam]] from Exner and Boltzmann on 19 December,{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=398}} and was awarded her doctorate on 1 February 1906.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=16}} She became the second woman to earn a [[Doctor of Philosophy|doctoral degree]] in physics at the University of Vienna, after [[Olga Steindler]] who had received her degree in 1903;{{sfn|Sime|2005|p=7}} the third was [[Selma Freud]], who worked in the same laboratory as Meitner, and received hers in 1906.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=398}} Meitner's thesis was published as {{lang|de|Wärmeleitung in inhomogenen Körpern}} ("Thermal Conduction in Inhomogeneous Bodies") on 22 February 1906.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=398}}<ref>{{cite web |last1=Meitner |first1=Lise |title=Wärmeleitung in inhomogenen Körpern |trans-title=Thermal Conduction in Inhomogeneous Bodies |url=https://opacplus.bsb-muenchen.de/title/BV020318720 |publisher=Bayerische Staatsbibliothek |access-date=12 July 2020 |date=1906}}</ref>

[[Paul Ehrenfest]] asked her to investigate an article on [[optics]] by [[Lord Rayleigh]] detailing an experiment that produced results Rayleigh had been unable to explain. She was able to explain the results, and also made predictions based on her explanation, which she then verified experimentally, demonstrating her ability to carry out independent and unsupervised research.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=18–21}} She published the results in her report on "Some Conclusions Derived from the Fresnel Reflection Formula".<ref>{{cite journal |first=Lise |last=Meitner |title=Über einige Folgerungen, die sich aus den Fresnel'schen Reflexionsformeln ergeben |trans-title=Some Conclusions Derived from the Fresnel Reflection Formula |journal=Sitzungsberichte / Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien, Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Klasse. Abteilung IIA, Mathematik, Astronomie, Physik, Meteorologie und Technik |volume=115 |date=June 1906 |pages=259–286 }}</ref> In 1906, while engaged in this research, Meitner was introduced by [[Stefan Meyer (physicist)|Stefan Meyer]] to [[radioactivity]], then a very new field of study. She started with [[alpha particle]]s. In her experiments with [[collimator]]s and metal foil, she found that scattering in a beam of alpha particles increased with the mass of the metal atoms. She submitted her findings to the ''[[Physikalische Zeitschrift]]'' on 29 June 1907. This was one of the experiments that led [[Ernest Rutherford]] to predict the [[nuclear atom]].{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=18–21}}<ref>{{cite journal |title=Über die Zerstreuung der α-Strahlen |trans-title=On the Scattering of α-Rays |language=de |first=L. |last=Meitner |journal=Physikalische Zeitschrift |issn=2366-9373 |date=1 August 1907 |volume=8 |issue=15 |pages=489–496 |url=https://archive.org/details/physikalischeze00unkngoog/page/n73/mode/2up }}</ref>

===Friedrich Wilhelm University===
[[File:Hahn and Meitner in 1912.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn in 1912]]
Encouraged and backed by her father's financial support, Meitner entered the [[Humboldt University of Berlin|Friedrich Wilhelm University]] in [[Berlin]], where the renowned physicist [[Max Planck]] taught. Planck invited her to his home, and allowed her to attend his lectures. This was an unusual gesture by Planck, who was on record as opposing the admission of women to universities in general, but apparently recognised Meitner as an exception.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=24–26}} She became friends with Planck's twin daughters Emma and Grete, who were born in 1889, and shared Meitner's love of music.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=38}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Max Planck – a biographical overview |publisher=Max-Planck Gesellschaft |url=https://www.mpg.de/19252700/max-planck-biographical-overview |access-date=16 July 2024 |archive-date=16 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716220806/https://www.mpg.de/19252700/max-planck-biographical-overview |url-status=live }}</ref>

Attending Planck's lectures did not take up all her time, and Meitner approached [[Heinrich Rubens]], the head of the experimental physics institute, about doing some research. Rubens said that he would be happy for her to work in his laboratory. He also added that [[Otto Hahn]] at the chemistry institute was looking for a physicist to collaborate with. A few minutes later she was introduced to Hahn. He had studied radioactive substances under [[William Ramsay]] and Ernest Rutherford, and was already credited with the discovery of what were then thought to be several new radioactive elements.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=26–27}}{{sfn|Hahn|1966|p=50}}{{efn|In fact, they were [[isotope]]s of known elements, but the concept of an isotope, along with the term, was only propounded by [[Frederick Soddy]] in 1913.{{sfn|Hughes|2008|pp=134–135}} }} Hahn was the same age as Meitner, and she noted his informal and approachable manner.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=26–27}}{{sfn|Hahn|1966|p=50}} In Montreal, Hahn had become accustomed to collaboration with physicists—including at least one woman, [[Harriet Brooks]].{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=28–29}}

[[File:Otto Hahn und Lise Meitner.jpg|thumb|left|Meitner and Hahn in their laboratory, in 1913. When a colleague she did not recognise said that they had met before, Meitner replied: "You probably mistake me for Professor Hahn."{{sfn|Hahn|1966|p=66}}]]
The head of the chemistry institute, [[Emil Fischer]], placed a former woodworking shop (''Holzwerkstatt'') at Hahn's disposal in the basement to use as a laboratory. Hahn equipped it with [[electroscope]]s to measure alpha and [[beta particle]]s and [[gamma rays]]. It was not possible to conduct research in the wood shop, but [[Alfred Stock]], the head of the inorganic chemistry department, let Hahn use a space in one of his two private laboratories.{{sfn|Hahn|1966|p=52}} Like Meitner, Hahn was unpaid, and lived off an allowance from his father, although somewhat larger than hers. He completed his [[habilitation]] in early 1907, and became a ''[[Privatdozent]]''.{{sfn|Stolz|1989|p=20}} Most of the organic chemists at the chemistry institute did not regard Hahn's work—detecting minute traces of [[isotope]]s too small to see, weigh or smell through their radioactivity—as real chemistry.{{sfn|Hahn|1966|p=50}} One department head remarked that "it is incredible what one gets to be a ''Privatdozent'' these days!"{{sfn|Hahn|1966|p=50}}

The arrangement was difficult for Meitner at first. Women were not yet admitted to universities in the [[States of the German Empire|German state]] of the [[Kingdom of Prussia]], which included Berlin. Meitner was allowed to work in the wood shop, which had its own external entrance, but she could not enter the rest of the institute, including Hahn's laboratory space upstairs. If she wanted to go to the toilet, she had to use one at the restaurant down the street. The following year, women were admitted to Prussian universities, and Fischer lifted the restrictions, and had women's toilets installed in the building. Not all the chemists were happy about this.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=28–29}} The Institute of Physics was more accepting, and she became friends with the physicists there, including {{ill|Otto von Baeyer|de}}, [[James Franck]], [[Gustav Hertz]], [[Robert Pohl]], Max Planck, {{ill|Peter Pringsheim|de}} and [[Wilhelm Westphal]].{{sfn|Hahn|1966|p=65}}

During the first years Meitner worked with Hahn, they co-authored nine papers: three in 1908 and six in 1909. Together with Hahn, she discovered and developed a physical separation method known as [[atomic recoil|radioactive recoil]], in which a [[daughter nucleus]] is forcefully ejected as it recoils at the moment of decay. While Hahn was more concerned with discovering new elements (now known to be isotopes), Meitner was more interested in understanding their radiation. She observed that radioactive recoil, which had been discovered by Harriet Brooks in 1904, could be a new way of detecting radioactive substances. They soon discovered two more new isotopes, bismuth-211 and thallium-207.{{sfn|Hahn|1966|pp=58–64}}<ref>{{cite web |first=Dava |last=Dava Sobel |author-link=Dava Sobel |date=2 July 2020 |title=Harriet Brooks |publisher=Linda Hall Library |url=https://www.lindahall.org/about/news/scientist-of-the-day/harriet-brooks/ |access-date=21 July 2024 |archive-date=21 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240721212403/https://www.lindahall.org/about/news/scientist-of-the-day/harriet-brooks/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Brooks |first=H. A. |author-link=Harriet Brooks |title=A Volatile Product from Radium |journal=Nature  |issn=0028-0836 |volume=70 |issue=1812 |page=270 |date=21 July 1904 |doi=10.1038/070270b0 |bibcode=1904Natur..70..270B }}</ref> Meitner was particularly interested in beta particles. By this time, they were known to be [[electron]]s. Alpha particles were emitted with characteristic energy, and she expected that this would be true of beta particles too. Hahn and Meitner carefully measured the absorption of beta particles by aluminium, but the results were puzzling. In 1914, [[James Chadwick]] found that electrons emitted from the nucleus formed a continuous spectrum, but Meitner found this hard to believe, as it seemed to contradict [[quantum physics]], which held that electrons in an atom can only occupy discrete energy states (quanta).{{sfn|Watkins|1983|pp=551–553}}
{{Clear}}

===Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry===
[[File:Berliner Physiker u Chemiker 1920.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.3|Physicists and chemists in Berlin in 1920. Front row, left to right: [[Hertha Sponer]], [[Albert Einstein]], Ingrid Franck, [[James Franck]], Lise Meitner, [[Fritz Haber]], and [[Otto Hahn]]. Back row, left to right: [[Walter Grotrian]], [[Wilhelm Westphal]], {{ill|Otto von Baeyer|de}}, {{ill|Peter Pringsheim|de}} and [[Gustav Hertz]] ]]
In 1912, Hahn and Meitner moved to the newly founded [[Max Planck Institute for Chemistry|Kaiser Wilhelm Institute (KWI) for Chemistry]] in Berlin. Hahn accepted an offer from Fischer to become a junior assistant in charge of its [[radiochemistry]] section, the first laboratory of its kind in Germany. The job came with the title of "professor" and a salary of 5,000 marks per annum ({{Inflation|DE|5,000|1912|fmt=eq|cursign=€|r=-3}}). Unlike the universities, the privately funded KWI had no policies excluding women, but Meitner worked without pay as a "guest" in Hahn's section.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=44–45}}{{sfn|Sime|2005|p=11}} She may have encountered financial difficulties after the death of her father in 1910. Fearing she might return to Vienna, Planck appointed her as his assistant at the Institute for Theoretical Physics in the Friedrich Wilhelm University. As such, she marked his students' papers. It was her first paid position. Assistant was the lowest rung on the academic ladder, and Meitner was the first female scientific assistant in Prussia.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=44–45}}{{sfn|Hahn|1966|p=66}}

Proud officials presented Meitner to [[Kaiser Wilhelm II]] at the official opening of the KWI for Chemistry on 23 October 1912.{{sfn|Hahn|1966|pp=70–71}} The following year she became a ''Mitglied'' (associate) like Hahn (although her salary was still less),{{sfn|Sime|2005|p=11}} and the radioactivity section became the Hahn-Meitner Laboratory. Meitner celebrated with a dinner party at the [[Hotel Adlon]]. Hahn and Meitner's salaries would soon be dwarfed by royalties from [[mesothorium]] ("middle thorium", radium-228, also called "German radium") produced for medical purposes, for which Hahn received 66,000 marks in 1914 ({{Inflation|DE|66,000|1914|fmt=eq|cursign=€|r=-3}}). He gave ten per cent to Meitner.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=47}} In 1914, Meitner was offered an academic position in [[Prague]], which was then part of her country of [[Austria-Hungary]]. Planck made it clear to Fischer that he did not want Meitner to leave, and Fischer arranged for her salary to be doubled to 3,000 marks ({{Inflation|DE|3,000|1914|fmt=eq|cursign=€|r=-3}}).{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=48}}

The move to new accommodation was fortunate, as the wood shop had become thoroughly contaminated by radioactive liquids that had been spilt, and radioactive gases that had vented and decayed then settled as radioactive dust, making sensitive measurements impossible. To ensure that their clean new laboratories stayed that way, Hahn and Meitner instituted strict procedures. Chemical and physical measurements were conducted in different rooms, people handling radioactive substances had to follow protocols that included not shaking hands, and rolls of toilet paper were hung next to every telephone and door handle. Strongly radioactive substances were stored in the old wood shop, and later in a purpose-built [[radium]] house on the institute grounds.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=48}}

==World War I and the discovery of protactinium==
In July 1914—shortly before the outbreak of [[World War I]]—Hahn was called to active duty with the army in a ''[[Landwehr]]'' regiment.{{sfn|Van der Kloot|2004|p=150}}{{sfn|Spence|1970|pp=286–287}} Meitner undertook X-ray technician training, and a course on anatomy at the city hospital in [[Lichterfelde (Berlin)|Lichterfelde]].{{sfn|Hahn|1966|p=66}} Meanwhile, she completed both the work on the [[beta ray]] spectrum that she had begun before the war with Hahn and Baeyer, and her own study of the uranium [[decay chain]].{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=55}} In July 1915, she returned to Vienna, where she joined the Austrian Army as an X-ray nurse-technician. Her unit was deployed to the [[Eastern Front (World War I)|Eastern front]] in Poland, and she also served on the [[Italian front (World War I)|Italian front]] before being discharged in September 1916.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=59–62}}

[[File:Dahlem Thielallee Hahn-Meitner-Bau.JPG|thumb|left|Former [[Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry]] building in Berlin. Badly damaged by bombing during [[World War II]], it was restored and became part of the [[Free University of Berlin]] in 1948. It was renamed the Otto Hahn Building in 1956, and the Hahn-Meitner Building in 2010.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=368}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Ehrung der Physikerin Lise Meitner Aus dem Otto-Hahn-Bau wird der Hahn-Meitner-Bau |publisher=Free University of Berlin |language=de |trans-title=Honouring physicist Lise Meitner as the Otto Hahn building becomes the Hahn-Meitner building |url=https://www.fu-berlin.de/campusleben/campus/2010/101028_hahn-meitner/index.html |date=28 October 2010 |access-date=10 June 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803124727/https://www.fu-berlin.de/campusleben/campus/2010/101028_hahn-meitner/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
Meitner returned to the KWI for Chemistry and her research in October. In January 1917, she was appointed as head of her own physics section. The Hahn-Meitner Laboratory was divided into separate Hahn and Meitner Laboratories, and her pay was increased to 4,000 marks ({{Inflation|DE|4,000|1917|fmt=eq|cursign=€|r=-3}}).<ref name="wapost" />{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=65}} Hahn returned to Berlin on leave, and they discussed another loose end from their pre-war work: the search for the mother isotope of [[actinium]] (element 89). According to the [[radioactive displacement law of Fajans and Soddy]], this had to be an isotope of the undiscovered element 91 on the [[periodic table]] that lay between [[thorium]] (element 90) and uranium (element 92). [[Kasimir Fajans]] and [[Oswald Helmuth Göhring]] discovered the missing element in 1913, and named it ''brevium'' after its short half-life. However, the isotope they had found was a beta emitter, and therefore could not be the mother isotope of actinium. This had to be another isotope of the same element.{{sfn|Sime|1986|pp=653–657}}

In 1914, Hahn and Meitner had developed a new technique for separating the [[tantalum]] group from [[pitchblende]], which they hoped would speed the isolation of the new isotope. When Meitner resumed this work in 1917, Hahn and most of the students, laboratory assistants and technicians had been called up to serve in the armed forces, so Meitner had to do everything herself. In February, she extracted 2 grams of [[silicon dioxide]] ({{chem|Si|O|2}}) from 21 grams of pitchblende. She set 1.5 grams aside and added a [[tantalum pentafluoride]] ({{chem|Ta|F|5}}) carrier to the other 0.5 grams, which she dissolved in [[hydrogen fluoride]] ({{chem|H|F}}). She then boiled it in concentrated [[sulfuric acid]] ({{chem|H|2|S|O|4}}), precipitated what was believed to be element 91, and verified that it was an alpha emitter. Hahn came home on leave in April, and together they devised a series of tests to eliminate other sources of alpha particles. The only known ones with similar chemical behaviour were [[lead-210]] (which decays to alpha emitter [[polonium-210]] via [[bismuth-210]]) and [[thorium-230]].{{sfn|Sime|1986|pp=653–657}}

Further investigation required more [[pitchblende]]. Meitner went to Vienna, where she met with Stefan Meyer. The export of uranium from Austria was forbidden due to wartime restrictions, but Meyer was able to offer her a kilogram of uranium residue, pitchblende from which the uranium had been removed, which was actually better for her purpose. The tests showed that the alpha activity was not due to these substances. All that now remained was to find evidence of actinium. For this yet more pitchblende was required, but this time Meyer was unable to assist, as the export was now prohibited. Meitner managed to obtain 100&nbsp;g of "double residue"—pitchblende without uranium or radium—from [[Friedrich Oskar Giesel]] and began tests with 43 grams of it, but its composition was different, and at first her tests did not work. With Giesel's help, she was able to produce a pure product that was strongly radioactive. By December 1917 she was able to isolate both the mother isotope and its actinium daughter product. She submitted their findings for publication in March 1918.{{sfn|Sime|1986|pp=653–657}}<ref>{{citation |first=Lise |last=Meitner |author-link=Lise Meitner |title=Die Muttersubstanz des Actiniums, Ein Neues Radioaktives Element von Langer Lebensdauer |trans-title=The Parent Substance of Actinium, a New Radioactive Element with a Long Lifetime |volume=19 |issue=11–12 |pages=169–173 |date=1 June 1918 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/bbpc.19180241107 |access-date=3 June 2021 |journal=Zeitschrift für Elektrochemie und angewandte physikalische Chemie |doi=10.1002/bbpc.19180241107 |s2cid=94448132 |archive-date=16 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201016222127/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/bbpc.19180241107 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Although Fajans and Göhring had been the first to discover the element, custom required that an element was represented by its longest-lived and most abundant isotope, and brevium did not seem appropriate. Fajans agreed to Meitner naming the element "protoactinium" (subsequently shortened to [[protactinium]]), and assigning it the chemical symbol Pa. In June 1918, Soddy and [[John Arnold Cranston|John Cranston]] announced that they had independently extracted a sample of the isotope, but unlike Meitner they were unable to describe its characteristics. They acknowledged Meitner's priority, and agreed to the name. The connection to uranium remained a mystery, as neither of the two known [[isotopes of uranium]] ([[uranium-234]] and [[uranium-238]]) decayed into protactinium. It remained unsolved until [[uranium-235]] was discovered by [[Arthur Jeffrey Dempster]] in 1935.{{sfn|Sime|1986|pp=653–657}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dempster |first=A. |author-link=Arthur Jeffrey Dempster |title=Isotopic Constitution of Uranium |journal=Nature |issn=0028-0836 |volume=136 |issue=180 |date=3 August 1935 |page=180 |doi=10.1038/136180a0 |bibcode=1935Natur.136..180D }}</ref>

==Beta radiation==
In 1921, Meitner accepted an invitation from [[Manne Siegbahn]] to come to Sweden and give a series of lectures on radioactivity as a visiting professor at [[Lund University]]. She found that very little research had been done on radioactivity in Sweden, but she was eager to learn about [[X-ray spectroscopy]], which was Siegbahn's specialty. At his laboratory, she met a Dutch doctoral candidate, [[Dirk Coster]], who was studying X-ray spectroscopy, and his wife Miep, who was working on her doctorate in Indonesian language and culture. Armed with her newly acquired knowledge of X-ray spectroscopy, Meitner took a fresh look at the beta-ray spectra when she returned to Berlin.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=653–657}} It was known that some beta emission was primary, with electrons being ejected directly from the nucleus, and some was secondary, in which alpha particles from the nucleus knocked electrons out of orbit. Meitner was sceptical of Chadwick's claim that the [[spectral line]]s were entirely due to secondary electrons, while the primary ones formed a continuous spectrum.{{sfn|Watkins|1983|pp=552–553}} Using techniques developed by [[Jean Danysz]], she examined the spectra of lead-210, [[radium-226]] and [[thorium-238]].{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=86}} Meitner discovered the cause of the emission of electrons from surfaces of atoms with "signature" energies, now known as the [[Auger-Meitner effect]], in 1922.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=90}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last1 =Meitner |first1=L. |doi=10.1007/BF01326962 |title=Über die Entstehung der β-Strahl-Spektren radioaktiver Substanzen |language=de |trans-title=On the origin of the β-ray spectra of radioactive substances |journal=Zeitschrift für Physik |issn=0044-3328 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=131–144 |year=1922 |bibcode=1922ZPhy....9..131M |s2cid=121637546 }}</ref> The effect is co-named after [[Pierre Victor Auger]], who independently discovered it in 1923.<ref>{{cite journal |first=P. |last=Auger |author-link=Pierre Victor Auger |url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3130n.image.f187.langFR |title=Sur les rayons β secondaires produits dans un gaz par des rayons X |language=fr |trans-title=On the secondary β-rays produced in a gas by X-rays |journal=Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences |volume=177 |date=1923 |pages=169–171 |access-date=30 May 2011 |archive-date=15 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171015233109/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3130n.image.f187.langFR |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Meitner published before Auger, but the effect does not bear her name. The issue of whether Meitner's name should have been included is examined in: {{cite journal |title=Pierre Auger – Lise Meitner: Comparative contributions to the Auger effect |first=Olivier Hardouin |last=Duparc |journal=International Journal of Materials Research |issn=1862-5282 |volume=100 |issue=9 |date=2009 |pages=1162–1166 |doi=10.3139/146.110163 |bibcode=2009IJMR..100.1162H |s2cid=229164774 }}, {{cite journal |title=A Renaming Proposal: "The Auger–Meitner effect" |first1=Demetrios |last1=Matsakis |first2=Anthea |last2=Coster |first3=Brenda |last3=Laster |first4=Ruth |last4=Sime |author-link4=Ruth Lewin Sime |journal=Physics Today |issn=0031-9228 |volume=72 |issue=9 |pages=10–11 |date=September 2019 |doi=10.1063/PT.3.4281|bibcode=2019PhT....72i..10M }} and {{cite journal |first=Richard |last=Sietmann |year=1988 |journal=Physics Bulletin |title=False Attribution: a Female Physicist's Fate |issn=0031-9112 |volume=39 |issue=8 |pages=316–317 |doi=10.1088/0031-9112/39/8/017 }}</ref>

[[File:Bohr Heisenberg Pauli Meitner u.a. 1937 (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.3|At a conference in 1937, Meitner shares the front row with (left to right) [[Niels Bohr]], [[Werner Heisenberg]], [[Wolfgang Pauli]], [[Otto Stern]], [[Rudolf Ladenburg]] and [[Jacob Christian Georg Jacobsen]]; [[Hilde Levi]] (at the very back) is the only other woman in the room.]]
Women were granted the right of habilitation in Prussia in 1920, and in 1922 Meitner was granted her habilitation and became a ''[[Privatdozentin]]''. She was the first woman to receive her habilitation in physics in Prussia, and only the second in Germany after [[Hedwig Kohn]]. Since Meitner had already published over 40 papers, she was not required to submit a thesis, but [[Max von Laue]] recommended that the requirement for an inaugural lecture not be waived, since he was interested in what she had to say. She therefore gave an inaugural lecture on "Problems of Cosmic Physics".{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=109–110, 421}} From 1923 to 1933, she taught a [[seminar|colloquium]] or [[tutorial]] at Friedrich Wilhelm University each semester, and supervised doctoral students at the KWI for Chemistry.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=109–110, 421}} In 1926, she became an ''[[außerordentlicher Professor]]'' (extraordinary professor), the first woman university physics professor in Germany. Her physics section became larger, and she acquired a permanent assistant. Scientists from Germany and around the world came to the KWI for Chemistry to conduct research under her supervision.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=109–110, 421}} In 1930, Meitner taught a seminar on "Questions of Atomic Physics and Atomic Chemistry" with [[Leó Szilárd]].{{sfn|Lanouette|Silard|1992|pp=100–101}}
[[File:Auger Process.svg|thumb|left|Two views of the [[Auger−Meitner effect]]. An incident electron or photon creates a core hole in the 1s level. An electron from the 2s level fills in the 1s hole and the transition energy is imparted to a 2p electron which is emitted. The final atomic state thus has two holes.]]
Meitner had a [[Wilson cloud chamber]] constructed at the KWI for Chemistry, the first one in Berlin, and with her student Kurt Freitag studied the tracks of alpha particles that did not collide with a nucleus.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=113}} With her assistant Kurt Philipp she later used it to take the first images of [[positron]] traces from gamma radiation. She proved Chadwick's assertion that the discrete spectral lines were entirely the result of secondary electrons, and the continuous spectra were therefore indeed entirely caused by the primary ones. In 1927, [[Charles Drummond Ellis]] and William Alfred Wooster measured the energy of the continuous spectrum produced by the beta decay of [[bismuth-210]] at 0.34&nbsp;[[MeV]] where the energy of each disintegration was 0.35&nbsp;MeV. Thus, the spectrum accounted for nearly, but not all, of the energy. Meitner found this result so troubling that she repeated the experiment with [[Wilhelm Orthmann]] using an improved method, and verified Ellis and Wooster's results.{{sfn|Watkins|1983|pp=552–553}}<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/119563c0 |title=The Continuous Spectrum of β-Rays |journal=Nature |issn=0028-0836 |volume=119 |issue=2998 |pages=563–564 |year=1927 |last1=Ellis |first1=C. D. |author-link=Charles Drummond Ellis |last2=Wooster|first2=W. A. |s2cid=4097830 |bibcode=1927Natur.119..563E}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first1=L. |last1=Meitner |first2=Wilhelm |last2=Orthmann |author-link2=Wilhelm Orthmann |title=Über eine absolute Bestimmung der Energie der primären ß-Strahlen von Radium E |trans-title=On an Absolute Determination of the Energy of the Primary ß-Rays of Radium E |language=de |journal=Zeitschrift für Physik |issn=0044-3328 |volume=60 |issue=3–4 |pages=143–155 |date=March 1930 |doi=10.1007/BF01339819|s2cid=121406618 }}</ref>

It appeared that the [[law of conservation of energy]] did not hold for beta decay, something Meitner regarded as unacceptable. In 1930, [[Wolfgang Pauli]] wrote an open letter to Meitner and [[Hans Geiger]] in which he proposed that the continuous spectrum was caused by the emission of a second particle during beta decay, one that had no electric charge and little or no [[rest mass]]. The idea was taken up by [[Enrico Fermi]] in his 1934 [[Fermi's interaction|theory of beta decay]], and he gave the name "[[neutrino]]" to the hypothetical neutral particle. At the time there was scant hope of detecting neutrinos, but in 1956 [[Clyde Cowan]] and [[Frederick Reines]] did just that.{{sfn|Watkins|1983|pp=552–553}}

==Nazi Germany==
[[Adolf Hitler]] was sworn in as the [[Chancellor of Germany]] on 30 January 1933, as his [[Nazi Party]] (NSDAP) was now the largest party in the ''[[Reichstag (Weimar Republic)|Reichstag]]''.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=135}} The 7 April 1933 [[Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service]] removed Jews from the civil service, which included academia. Meitner never tried to conceal her Jewish descent, but initially was exempt from its impact on multiple grounds: she had been employed before 1914, had served in the military during the World War, was an Austrian rather than a German citizen, and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute was a government-industry partnership.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=138–139}} However, she was dismissed from her adjunct professorship on 6 September on the grounds that her World War I service was not at the front, and she had not completed her habilitation until 1922. This had no effect on her salary or work at the KWI for Chemistry.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=150}} [[Carl Bosch]], the director of [[IG Farben]], a major sponsor of the KWI for Chemistry, assured Meitner that her position there was safe.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=138–139}} Although Hahn and Meitner remained in charge, their assistants, Otto Erbacher and Kurt Philipp respectively, who were both NSDAP members, were given increasing influence over the day-to-day running of the institute.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=153}}

Others were not so fortunate; her nephew [[Otto Robert Frisch]] was dismissed from his post in the Institute for Physical Chemistry at the [[University of Hamburg]], as was [[Otto Stern]], the director of the institute. Stern found Frisch a position with [[Patrick Blackett]] at [[Birkbeck College]] in England,{{sfn|Frisch|1979|pp=51–52}} and he later worked at the [[Niels Bohr Institute]] in Copenhagen from 1934 to 1939.{{sfn|Frisch|1979|p=81}} [[Fritz Strassman]] had come to the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry to study under Hahn to improve his employment prospects. He declined a lucrative offer of employment because it required political training and Nazi Party membership, and resigned from the [[Society of German Chemists]] when it became part of the Nazi [[German Labour Front]] rather than become a member of a Nazi-controlled organisation. As a result, he could neither work in the chemical industry nor receive his habilitation. Meitner persuaded Hahn to hire him as an assistant. Soon he would be credited as a third collaborator on the papers they produced, and would sometimes even be listed first.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=156–157, 169}}{{sfn|Walker|2006|p=122}} Between 1933 and 1935, Meitner published exclusively in the journal ''[[Naturwissenschaften]]'', as its editor [[Arnold Berliner]] was Jewish, and he continued to accept submissions from Jewish scientists. This generated a boycott of the publication, and in August 1935 the publisher, [[Springer-Verlag]], fired Berliner.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=151–152}}

==Transmutation==
After Chadwick discovered the [[neutron]] in 1932,{{sfn|Rhodes|1986|pp=39, 160–167, 793}} [[Irène Curie]] and [[Frédéric Joliot]] irradiated aluminium foil with alpha particles, and found that this results in a short-lived radioactive [[isotopes of phosphorus|isotope of phosphorus]]. They noted that [[positron emission]] continued after the irradiation ceased. Not only had they discovered a new form of radioactive decay, they had transmuted an element into a hitherto unknown radioactive isotope of another, thereby inducing radioactivity where there had been none before. Radiochemistry was now no longer confined to certain heavy elements, but extended to the entire periodic table.{{sfn|Rhodes|1986|pp=200–201}}{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=161–162}} Chadwick noted that being electrically neutral, neutrons could penetrate the nucleus more easily than protons or alpha particles.{{sfn|Fergusson|2011|p=1151}} Enrico Fermi and his colleagues in Rome picked up on this idea,{{sfn|Rhodes|1986|pp=210–211}} and began irradiating elements with neutrons.{{sfn|Segrè|1989|pp=39–40}}

The radioactive displacement law of Fajans and Soddy said that beta decay causes isotopes to move one element up on the periodic table, and alpha decay causes them to move two down. When Fermi's group bombarded uranium atoms with neutrons, they found a complex mix of half lives. Fermi therefore concluded that new elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (known as [[transuranium elements]]) had been created.{{sfn|Segrè|1989|pp=39–40}} Meitner and Hahn had not collaborated for many years, but Meitner was eager to investigate Fermi's results. Hahn, initially, was not, but he changed his mind when [[Aristid von Grosse]] suggested that what Fermi had found was an isotope of protactinium.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=164–165}} "The only question", Hahn later wrote, "seemed to be whether Fermi had found isotopes of transuranium elements, or isotopes of the next-lower element, protactinium. At that time Lise Meitner and I decided to repeat Fermi's experiments in order to find out whether the 13-minute isotope was a protactinium isotope or not. It was a logical decision, having been the discoverers of protactinium."{{sfn|Hahn|1966|pp=140–141}}

Between 1934 and 1938, Hahn, Meitner, and Strassmann found a great number of radioactive transmutation products, all of which they regarded as transuranic.{{sfn|Hahn|1958|p=78}} At that time, the existence of [[actinide]]s was not yet established, and uranium was wrongly believed to be a [[group 6 element]] similar to [[tungsten]]. It followed that the first transuranic elements would be similar to group 7 to 10 elements, [[rhenium]] and [[platinoid]]s. They established the presence of multiple isotopes of at least four such elements, and (mistakenly) identified them as elements with atomic numbers 93 to 96. They were the first scientists to measure the 23-minute half life of the [[synthetic radioisotope]] uranium-239 and to establish chemically that it was an isotope of uranium, but with their weak neutron sources they were unable to continue this work to its logical conclusion and identify the real element 93. They identified ten different half lives, with varying degrees of certainty. To account for them, Meitner had to hypothesise a new class of reaction and the alpha decay of uranium, neither of which had ever been reported before, and for which physical evidence was lacking. Hahn and Strassmann refined their chemical procedures, while Meitner devised new experiments to examine the reaction processes.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=170–172}}

In May 1937, Hahn and Meitner issued parallel reports, one in ''Zeitschrift für Physik'' with Meitner as the first author, and one in ''Chemische Berichte'' with Hahn as the first author.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=170–172}}<ref name="Meitner 1937">{{cite journal |first1=L. |last1=Meitner |author-link1=Lise Meitner |first2=O. |last2=Hahn |first3=F. |last3=Strassmann |author-link3=Fritz Strassmann |title=Über die Umwandlungsreihen des Urans, die durch Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden |trans-title=On the series of transformations of uranium that are generated by neutron radiation |language=de |journal=Zeitschrift für Physik |issn=0939-7922 |volume=106 |issue=3–4 |pages=249–270 |date=May 1937 |doi=10.1007/BF01340321 |bibcode=1937ZPhy..106..249M |s2cid=122830315 }}</ref><ref name="Hahn 1937">{{cite journal |first1=O. |last1=Hahn |first2=L. |last2=Meitner |author-link2=Lise Meitner |first3=F. |last3=Strassmann |author-link3=Fritz Strassmann |title=Über die Trans-Urane und ihr chemisches Verhalten |trans-title=On the transuranes and their chemical behaviour |journal=Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft |issn=0365-9496 |date=9 June 1937 |volume=70 |issue=6 |pages=1374–1392 |doi=10.1002/cber.19370700634 }}</ref> Hahn concluded his by stating emphatically: {{lang|de|Vor allem steht ihre chemische Verschiedenheit von allen bisher bekannten Elementen außerhalb jeder Diskussion}} ("Above all, their chemical distinction from all previously known elements needs no further discussion").<ref name="Hahn 1937"/> Meitner was increasingly uncertain. She considered the possibility that the reactions were from different isotopes of uranium; three were known: uranium-238, uranium-235 and uranium-234. However, when she calculated the [[neutron cross section]], it was too large to be anything other than the most abundant isotope, uranium-238, and concluded that it must be another case of [[nuclear isomerism]], a phenomenon Hahn had discovered in protactinium years before. She therefore ended her report on a very different note to Hahn, reporting that: "The process must be neutron capture by uranium-238, which leads to three isomeric nuclei of uranium-239. This result is very difficult to reconcile with current concepts of the nucleus."<ref name="Meitner 1937" />{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=177}}

==Escape from Germany==
With the ''[[Anschluss]]'', Germany's annexation of Austria on 12 March 1938, Meitner lost her Austrian citizenship.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=184–185}} [[Niels Bohr]] extended an offer to lecture in Copenhagen, and [[Paul Scherrer]] invited her to attend a congress in Switzerland, with all expenses paid. Carl Bosch still said that she could remain at the KWI for Chemistry, but by May she was aware that the [[Reich Ministry of Science, Education and Culture]] was looking into her case. On 9 May, she decided to accept Bohr's invitation to go to Copenhagen, where Frisch worked,{{sfn|Sime|1990|p=262}} but when she went to the Danish consulate to get a [[travel visa]], she was told that Denmark no longer recognised her Austrian passport as valid. She could not leave for Denmark, Switzerland or any other country.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=189–190}}

Bohr came to Berlin in June, and was gravely concerned. When he returned to Copenhagen, he began looking for a position for Meitner in Scandinavia. He also asked [[Hans Kramers]] to see if anything was available in the Netherlands. Kramers contacted Coster, who in turn notified [[Adriaan Fokker]]. Coster and Fokker attempted to secure a position for Meitner at the [[University of Groningen]]. They found that the [[Rockefeller Foundation]] would not support refugee scientists, and that the [[International Federation of University Women]] had been flooded with applications for support from Austria. On 27 June, Meitner received an offer of a one-year position at Manne Siegbahn's new  {{ill|Manne Siegbahn Laboratory|sv|Manne Siegbahnlaboratoriet}} in [[Stockholm]], then under construction, which would be devoted to nuclear physics, and she decided to accept it. But on 4 July she learned that academics would no longer be granted permission to travel abroad.{{sfn|Sime|1990|p=263}}

[[File:Flugsnapparen 8.JPG|thumb|left|Meitner lived at this address for most of her years while in Sweden.]]
Through Bohr in Copenhagen, [[Peter Debye]] communicated with Coster and Fokker, and they approached the [[Ministry of Education, Culture and Science (Netherlands)|Netherlands Ministry of Education]] with an appeal to allow Meitner to come to the Netherlands. As foreigners were not allowed to work for pay, an appointment as a non-salaried ''privaat-docente'' was required. [[Wander Johannes de Haas]] and [[Anton Eduard van Arkel]] arranged for one at [[Leiden University]].{{sfn|Sime|1990|p=264}} Coster also spoke to the head of the border guards, who assured him that Meitner would be admitted. A friend of Coster, E. H. Ebels, was a local politician from the border area, and he spoke directly to the guards on the border.{{sfn|Sime|1990|p=265}}

On 11 July, Coster arrived in Berlin, where he stayed with Debye.{{sfn|Sime|1990|p=265}} The following morning, Meitner arrived early at the KWI for Chemistry, and Hahn briefed her on the plan. To avoid suspicion, she maintained her usual routine, remaining at the institute until 20:00 correcting one of the associate's papers for publication. Hahn and [[Paul Rosbaud]] helped her pack two small suitcases, carrying only summer clothes. Hahn gave her a diamond ring he had inherited from his mother in case of emergency; she took only 10 marks in her purse ({{Inflation|DE|10|1938|fmt=eq|cursign=€|r=-1}}). She then spent the night at Hahn's house. The next morning Meitner met Coster at the railway station, where they pretended to have met by chance. They travelled on a lightly used line to [[Bad Nieuweschans railway station]] on the border, which they crossed without incident;{{sfn|Sime|1990|p=266}} the German border guards may have thought that Meitner was the wife of a professor.{{sfn|Sime|1990|p=267}} A telegram from Pauli informed Coster that he was now "as famous for the abduction of Lise Meitner as for the discovery of hafnium".{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=205}}

Meitner learned on 26 July that Sweden had granted her permission to enter on her Austrian passport, and two days later she flew to Copenhagen, where she was greeted by Frisch, and stayed with Niels and [[Margrethe Bohr]] at their holiday house in [[Tisvilde]]. On 1 August she travelled by train and steamship to [[Göteborg]] station in Sweden, where she was met at by [[Eva von Bahr (physicist)|Eva von Bahr]]. They took a train, and then a steamer, to von Bahr's home in [[Kungälv]], where she stayed until September.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=207}} Hahn told everyone at the KWI for Chemistry that Meitner had gone to Vienna to visit her relatives, and a few days later the institute had closed for the summer. On 23 August, she wrote to Bosch requesting retirement.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=210}} He tried to ship her belongings to Sweden, but the Reich Ministry of Education insisted they remain in Germany.{{sfn|Sime|1990|pp=215–216}}

Meitner was also concerned about her family in Austria. One of her first actions in Sweden was to apply for a Swedish immigration permit for Gusti and her husband Justinian (Jutz) Frisch.{{sfn|Sime|1990|pp=215–216}} Hahn selected [[Josef Mattauch]] to replace her as head of the physics section, and went to Vienna to offer him the job. While there he dined with Meitner's sisters Gusti and Gisela and their husbands Jutz Frisch and Karl Lion on 9 November. The next day Gusti informed him that Frisch had been arrested. That day, Meitner arrived in Copenhagen; arranging a travel visa had been difficult with her invalid Austrian passport. Hahn joined her in Copenhagen on 13 November, and had discussions about the uranium research with Meitner, Bohr and Otto Robert Frisch.{{sfn|Sime|1990|pp=226–228}}

==Nuclear fission==
{{main|Discovery of nuclear fission}}
[[File:Nuclear Fission Experimental Apparatus 1938 - Deutsches Museum - Munich.jpg|thumb|right|This was touted for many years as the table and experimental apparatus with which Otto Hahn discovered nuclear fission in 1938. The table and instruments are representative of the ones used, but not necessarily the originals, and would not have been together on the one table in the same room. Pressure from historians, scientists and feminists caused the [[Deutsches Museum]] to alter the display in 1988 to acknowledge the role of Meitner, Frisch and Strassmann.{{sfn|Sime|2010|pp=206–211}} ]]
Hahn and Strassmann isolated the three radium isotopes (verified by their half-lives) and used fractional crystallisation to separate it from its barium carrier by adding [[barium bromide]] crystals in four steps. Since radium precipitates preferentially in a solution of barium bromide, at each step the fraction drawn off would contain less radium than the one before. However, they found no difference between each of the fractions. In case their process was faulty in some way, they verified it with known isotopes of radium; the process was fine. On 19 December, Hahn wrote to Meitner, informing her that the radium isotopes behaved chemically like barium. Anxious to finish up before the Christmas break, Hahn and Strassmann submitted their findings to ''Naturwissenschaften'' on 22 December without waiting for Meitner to reply.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=233–234}} Hahn concluded the paper with: "As chemists... we should substitute the symbols Ba, La, Ce for Ra, Ac, Th. As 'nuclear chemists' fairly close to physics we cannot yet bring ourselves to take this step which contradicts all previous experience in physics."<ref>{{cite journal |first1=O. |last1=Hahn |author-link1=Otto Hahn |first2=F. |last2=Strassmann |s2cid=5920336 |author-link2=Fritz Strassmann |title=Über den Nachweis und das Verhalten der bei der Bestrahlung des Urans mittels Neutronen entstehenden Erdalkalimetalle |language=de |trans-title=Concerning the existence of alkaline earth metals resulting from neutron irradiation of uranium |journal=Naturwissenschaften |issn=0028-1042 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=11–15 |date=6 January 1939 |doi=10.1007/BF01488241 |bibcode=1939NW.....27...11H }}</ref>

Frisch normally celebrated Christmas with Meitner in Berlin, but in 1938 she accepted an invitation from Eva von Bahr to spend it with her family at [[Kungälv]], and Meitner asked Frisch to join her there. Meitner received the letter from Hahn describing his chemical proof that some of the product of the bombardment of uranium with neutrons was barium. Barium had an atomic mass 40% less than uranium, and no previously known methods of radioactive decay could account for such a large difference in the mass of the nucleus.{{sfn|Frisch|1979|pp=113–114}}{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=235–239}} Nonetheless, she had immediately written back to Hahn to say: "At the moment the assumption of such a thoroughgoing breakup seems very difficult to me, but in nuclear physics we have experienced so many surprises, that one cannot unconditionally say: 'It is impossible.'"{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=235}}

[[File:Liquid drop model of nuclear fission.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.5|[[Liquid-drop model]] of nuclear fission]]
Meitner dismissed the possibility that Hahn's identification of barium was in error; her faith in Hahn's expertise as a chemist was absolute. Meitner and Frisch then considered how it could be possible. Previous attempts at atom splitting had never had enough energy to chip away more than individual protons or alpha particles, but a barium nucleus was much larger. They considered the [[liquid-drop model]] of the nucleus that had been proposed by [[George Gamow]]: perhaps it was possible for a drop to become elongated and then divide itself in two.{{sfn|Frisch|1979|pp=115–116}}

Frisch later wrote:{{blockquote|text=<p>At that point we both sat down on a tree trunk (all that discussion had taken place while we walked through the wood in the snow, I with my skis on, Lise Meitner making good her claim that she could walk just as fast without), and started to calculate on scraps of paper. The charge of a uranium nucleus, we found, was indeed large enough to overcome the effect of the surface tension almost completely; so the uranium nucleus might indeed resemble a very wobbly unstable drop, ready to divide itself at the slightest provocation, such as the impact of a single neutron.</p><p>But there was another problem. After separation, the two drops would be driven apart by their mutual electric repulsion and would acquire high speed and hence a very large energy, about 200&nbsp;MeV in all; where could that energy come from? Fortunately Lise Meitner remembered the empirical formula for computing the masses of nuclei and worked out that the two nuclei formed by the division of a uranium nucleus together would be lighter than the original uranium nucleus by about one-fifth the mass of a proton. Now whenever mass disappears energy is created, according to [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s formula ''E''&nbsp;= ''mc''<sup>2</sup>, and one-fifth of a proton mass was just equivalent to 200&nbsp;MeV. So here was the source for that energy; it all fitted!{{sfn|Frisch|1979|pp=115–116}}</p> }}

[[File:75th Anniversary Discovery of Nuclear Fission (01311665) (11049703086).jpg|thumb|right|Exhibition to mark the 75th anniversary of the discovery of nuclear fission, at the [[Vienna International Centre]] in 2013. The table (on loan from the Deutsches Museum Munich) is now described as a replica and images of Meitner and Strassmann are prominently displayed.]]
Meitner and Frisch had correctly interpreted Hahn's results to mean that the nucleus of uranium had split roughly in half. The first two reactions that the Berlin group had observed were light elements created by the breakup of uranium nuclei; the third, the 23-minute one, was a decay into the real element 93.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=243}} On returning to Copenhagen, Frisch informed Bohr, who slapped his forehead and exclaimed "What idiots we have been!"{{sfn|Frisch|1979|p=116}} Bohr promised not to say anything until they had a paper ready for publication. To speed the process, they decided to submit a one-page note to ''Nature''. At this point, the only evidence that they had was the barium. Logically, if barium was formed, the other element must be [[krypton]],{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=246}} but Hahn had mistakenly believed that the [[atomic mass]]es had to add up to 239 rather than the [[atomic number]]s adding up to 92, and thought it was masurium ([[technetium]]), and so did not check for it:{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=239, 456}}
: {{chem||92|U}} + n → {{chem||56|Ba}} + {{chem||36|Kr}} + some n {{efn|Although Hahn and Strassmann believed that fission had occurred in the uranium-238 isotope, their observations indicate that they actually observed fission in uranium-235.{{sfn|Steinhauser|2016|pp=265–266}} }}   

Over a series of long-distance phone calls, Meitner and Frisch came up with a simple experiment to bolster their claim: to measure the recoil of the fission fragments, using a [[Geiger counter]] with the threshold set above that of the alpha particles. Frisch conducted the experiment on 13 January, and found the pulses caused by the reaction just as they had predicted.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=246}} He decided he needed a name for the newly discovered nuclear process. He spoke to William A. Arnold, an American biologist working with [[George de Hevesy]], and asked him what biologists called the process by which living cells divided into two. Arnold told him that biologists called it [[fission (biology)|fission]]. Frisch then applied that name to the nuclear process in his paper.{{sfn|Rhodes|1986|p=263}} He mailed both papers to ''Nature'' on 16 January; the jointly-authored note appeared in print on 11 February and Frisch's paper on recoil on 18 February.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=L. |last1=Meitner |author-link1=Lise Meitner |first2=O. R. |last2=Frisch |s2cid=4113262 |author-link2=Otto Robert Frisch |doi=10.1038/143239a0 |title=Disintegration of Uranium by Neutrons: a New Type of Nuclear Reaction |year=1939 |page=239 |issue=3615 |volume=143 |journal=Nature |issn=0028-0836 |url=http://www.nature.com/physics/looking-back/meitner/index.html |bibcode=1939Natur.143..239M |access-date=11 March 2008 |archive-date=28 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428141914/http://www.nature.com/physics/looking-back/meitner/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=O. R. |last=Frisch |s2cid=4076376 |author-link=Otto Robert Frisch |doi=10.1038/143276a0 |title=Physical Evidence for the Division of Heavy Nuclei under Neutron Bombardment |year=1939 |page=276 |issue=3616 |volume=143 |journal=Nature |issn=0028-0836 |bibcode=1939Natur.143..276F |doi-access=free }}</ref>

These three reports, the first Hahn-Strassmann publications of 6 January and 10 February 1939, and the Frisch-Meitner publication of 11 February 1939, had electrifying effects on the scientific community.{{sfn|Stuewer|1985|pages=54–56}} In 1940 Frisch and [[Rudolf Peierls]] produced the [[Frisch–Peierls memorandum]], which established that an atomic explosion could be generated.{{sfn|Bernstein|2011|pp=441–446}}

==Nobel Prize==
Despite the many honours that Meitner received in her lifetime, she did not receive the Nobel Prize while it was awarded to Otto Hahn for the discovery of nuclear fission. She was nominated 49 times for Physics and Chemistry Nobel Prizes but never won.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Nobel prize – Nomination archive – Lise Meitner|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=6097/|access-date=30 August 2022  |publisher=Nobel Foundation |date=April 2020 |archive-date=6 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306004948/https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=6097/|url-status=live}}</ref> On 15 November 1945, the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]] announced that Hahn had been awarded the 1944 [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] for "his discovery of the fission of heavy atomic nuclei".<ref>{{cite web |title=The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1944 |publisher=Nobel Foundation |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1944/index.html |access-date=26 August 2011 |archive-date=25 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081225083657/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1944/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>{{efn|The Nobel Committee had decided to defer the 1944 award for one year due to the war.{{sfn|Crawford|Sime|Walker|1997|pp=26–32}} }} Meitner was the one who told Hahn and Strassman to test their radium in more detail, and it was she who told Hahn that it was possible for the nucleus of uranium to disintegrate. Without these contributions of Meitner, Hahn would not have found that the uranium nucleus can split in half.{{sfn|Sime|1989|pp=373–376}}

In 1945 the [[Nobel Committee for Chemistry]] in Sweden that selected the Nobel Prize in Chemistry decided to award that prize solely to Hahn, who found out from a newspaper while detained in [[Farm Hall]] in England. In the 1990s, the long-sealed records of the Nobel Committee's proceedings became public, and the comprehensive biography of Meitner published in 1996 by [[Ruth Lewin Sime]] took advantage of this unsealing to reconsider Meitner's exclusion.{{sfn|Crawford|Sime|Walker|1997|pp=26–32}} In a 1997 article in the [[American Physical Society]] journal ''[[Physics Today]]'', Sime and her colleagues Elisabeth Crawford and Mark Walker wrote: {{blockquote|It appears that Lise Meitner did not share the 1944 prize because the structure of the Nobel committees was ill-suited to assess interdisciplinary work; because the members of the chemistry committee were unable or unwilling to judge her contribution fairly; and because during the war the Swedish scientists relied on their own limited expertise. Meitner's exclusion from the chemistry award may well be summarized as a mixture of disciplinary bias, political obtuseness, ignorance, and haste.{{sfn|Crawford|Sime|Walker|1997|pp=26–32}}}}

[[Max Perutz]], the 1962 Nobel Prize for chemistry winner reached a similar conclusion: {{blockquote|Having been locked up in the Nobel Committee's files these fifty years, the documents leading to this unjust award now reveal that the protracted deliberations by the Nobel jury were hampered by lack of appreciation both of the joint work that had preceded the discovery and of Meitner's written and verbal contributions after her flight from Berlin.{{sfn|Perutz|2002|p=27}}<ref>{{cite news |last=Perutz |first=Max |title=A Passion for Science |newspaper=[[The New York Review of Books]] |date=20 February 1997 |url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/1997/02/20/a-passion-for-science/ |url-access=subscription |access-date=11 July 2020 |archive-date=26 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226124222/https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1997/02/20/a-passion-for-science/ |url-status=live }}</ref>}}

The five-member physics committee included Manne Siegbahn; his former student Erik Hulthén, the professor of experimental physics at [[Uppsala University]]; and Axel Lindh, who eventually succeeded Hulthén. All three were part of the Siegbahn school of X-ray spectroscopy. The poor relationship between Siegbahn and Meitner was a factor here, as was the bias towards experimental rather than theoretical physics.{{sfn|Crawford|Sime|Walker|1997|pp=26–32}}<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/02/science/lise-meitner-fission-nobel.html | title=Why the 'Mother of the Atomic Bomb' Never Won a Nobel Prize | newspaper=The New York Times | date=2 October 2023 | last1=Miller | first1=Katrina | access-date=8 August 2024 | archive-date=2 October 2023 | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20231002171026/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/02/science/lise-meitner-fission-nobel.html | url-status=live }}</ref> In his report on the work of Meitner and Frisch, Hulthén relied on pre-war papers. He did not think that their work was groundbreaking and argued that the prize for physics was given for experimental rather than theoretical work, which had not been the case for many years.{{sfn|Crawford|Sime|Walker|1997|pp=26–32}}
At the time Meitner herself wrote in a letter: "Surely Hahn fully deserved the Nobel Prize for chemistry. There is really no doubt about it. But I believe that Frisch and I contributed something not insignificant to the clarification of the process of uranium fission—how it originates and that it produces so much energy and that was something very remote to Hahn."{{sfn|Sexl|Hardy|2002|p=119}}{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=327}} Hahn's Nobel Prize was long expected; both he and Meitner had been nominated for both the chemistry and the physics prizes several times even before the discovery of nuclear fission. According to the Nobel Prize archive, she was nominated 19 times for Nobel Prize in Chemistry between 1924 and 1948, and 30 times for Nobel Prize in Physics between 1937 and 1967. Her nominators included [[Arthur Compton]], Dirk Coster, Kasimir Fajans, James Franck, Otto Hahn, [[Oscar Klein]], Niels Bohr, Max Planck and [[Max Born]].<ref name="Hahn nominations">{{cite web |title=Nomination Database: Otto Hahn |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=3787 |publisher=Nobel Media AB |date=9 June 2020 |access-date=14 June 2017 |archive-date=20 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200620174922/https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=3787 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Meitner nominations">{{cite web |title=Nomination Database: Lise Meitner |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=6097 |publisher=Nobel Media AB |date=9 June 2020 |access-date=14 June 2017 |archive-date=12 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612011202/https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=6097 |url-status=live }}</ref> Despite not having been awarded the Nobel Prize, Meitner was invited to attend the [[Lindau Nobel Laureate Meeting]] in 1962.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lise Meitner – Fame without a Nobel Prize |date=5 November 2015 |first=Stephanie |last=Hanel |publisher=The Lindau Nobel Laureate Meetings |url=https://www.lindau-nobel.org/lise-meitner-fame-without-a-nobel-prize/ |access-date=11 July 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803121433/https://www.lindau-nobel.org/lise-meitner-fame-without-a-nobel-prize/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Later life==
[[File:Lise Meitner standing at meeting with Arthur H. Compton and Katherine Cornell.jpg|thumb |Meitner with actress [[Katharine Cornell]] and physicist [[Arthur Compton]] on 6 June 1946]]
Meitner found that Siegbahn did not want her. At the time the offer to come to Sweden had been extended, he had said that he had no money, and could only offer Meitner a place to work. Eva von Bahr had then written to [[Carl Wilhelm Oseen]], who had provided money from the Nobel Foundation. This left her with laboratory space, but now she had to perform work that she had been able to delegate to her laboratory technicians for the previous twenty years.{{sfn|Sime|1994|p=697}} Ruth Lewin Sime wrote that: {{blockquote|In Sweden there was no general sympathy for refugees from Nazi Germany: the country was small, with a weak economy and no immigrant tradition, and its academic culture had always been firmly pro-German, a tradition that did not change much until the middle of the war when it became obvious that Germany would not win. During the war, members of Siegbahn's group saw Meitner as an outsider, withdrawn and depressed; they did not understand the displacement and anxiety common to all refugees, or the trauma of losing friends and relatives to the Holocaust, or the exceptional isolation of a woman who had single mindedly devoted her life to her work.{{sfn|Sime|1994|p=697}} }}

On 14 January 1939, Meitner learned that her brother-in-law Jutz had been released from [[Dachau concentration camp|Dachau]] and he and her sister Gusti were permitted to emigrate to Sweden.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=247}} Jutz's boss, [[Gottfried Bermann]], had escaped to Sweden,{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=247}} and he offered Jutz his old job back at the publishing firm if he was able to come. Niels Bohr interceded with a Swedish official, [[Supreme Court of Sweden|Justitieråd]] Alexandersson, who said that Jutz would receive a labour permit on arrival in Sweden. He worked there until he was pensioned off in 1948, and then moved to Cambridge to join Otto Robert Frisch.{{sfn|Frisch|1979|pp=205–207}} Her sister Gisela and brother-in-law Karl Lion moved to England,{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=215}} and Meitner also considered moving there. She visited Cambridge in July 1939 and accepted an offer from [[William Lawrence Bragg]] and [[John Cockcroft]] of a position at the [[Cavendish Laboratory]] on a three-year contract with [[Girton College, Cambridge]], but the [[Second World War]] broke out in September 1939 before she could make the move.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=278}}

In Sweden, Meitner continued her research as best she could. She measured the neutron cross sections of thorium, lead and uranium using [[dysprosium]] as a neutron detector,{{sfn|Sime|1994|p=697}} an assay technique pioneered by George de Hevesy and [[Hilde Levi]].{{sfn|Frisch|1979|pp=88–90}} She was able to arrange for Hedwig Kohn, who faced deportation to Poland, to come to Sweden, and eventually to emigrate to the United States, travelling via the [[Soviet Union]]. She was unsuccessful in bringing Stefen Meyer out of Germany,{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=285–288}} but he managed to survive the war.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=313}} She declined an offer to join Frisch on the [[British contribution to the Manhattan Project]] at the [[Los Alamos Laboratory]], declaring "I will have nothing to do with a bomb!"{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=305}} She later said that the [[atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]] had come as a surprise to her, and that she was "sorry that the bomb had to be invented".{{sfn|Dawidoff|1994|p=228}} After the war, Meitner acknowledged her own moral failing in staying in Germany from 1933 to 1938. She wrote: "It was not only stupid but very wrong that I did not leave at once."{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=310}} She regretted her own inaction during this period, and was also bitterly critical of Hahn, Max von Laue, [[Werner Heisenberg]], and other German scientists. In a June 1945 letter addressed to Hahn, that he never received, she wrote: {{blockquote|You all worked for Nazi Germany. And you did not even try passive resistance. Granted, to absolve your conscience you helped some oppressed person here and there, but millions of innocent human beings were murdered and there was no protest. Here in neutral Sweden, long before the end of the war, there was discussion of what should be done with German scholars once the war is over. What then must the English and Americans be thinking? I and many others are of the opinion that the one path for you would be to deliver an open statement that you are aware that through your passivity you share responsibility for what has happened, and that you have the need to work for what can be done to make amends. But many think it is too late for that. These people say that first you betrayed your friends, then your men and your children in that you let them stake their lives on a criminal war – and finally that you betrayed Germany itself, because when the war was already quite hopeless, you never once spoke out against the meaningless destruction of Germany. That sounds pitiless but nevertheless I believe that the reason I write this to you is true friendship. In the last few days one had heard of the unbelievably gruesome things in the concentration camps; it overwhelms everything one previously feared. When I heard on English radio a very detailed report by the English and Americans about [[Belsen]] and [[Buchenwald]], I began to cry out loud and lay awake all night. And if you had seen those people who were brought here from the camps. One should take a man like Heisenberg and millions like him, and force them to look at these camps and the martyred people. The way he turned up in Denmark in 1941 is unforgettable.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=310}} }}

In the aftermath of the bombing of Hiroshima, Meitner became a celebrity. She had a radio interview with [[Eleanor Roosevelt]], and a few days later another one with a radio station in New York, during which she heard her sister Frida's voice for the first time in years.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=310}} "I am of Jewish descent", she told Frida, "I am not Jewish by belief, know nothing of the history of Judaism, and do not feel closer to Jews than to other people."{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=315–316}} On 25 January 1946, Meitner arrived in New York, where she was greeted by her sisters Lola and Frida, and by Frisch, who had made the two-day train trip from Los Alamos. Lola's husband [[Rudolf Allers]] arranged a visiting professorship for Meitner at the [[Catholic University of America]]. Meitner lectured at [[Princeton University]], [[Harvard University]] and [[Columbia University]], and discussed physics with Albert Einstein, [[Hermann Weyl]], [[Tsung-Dao Lee]], [[Yang Chen-Ning]] and [[Isidor Isaac Rabi]]. She went to [[Durham, North Carolina]] and saw Hertha Sponer and Hedwig Kohn, and spent an evening in Washington, DC, with James Chadwick, who was now the head of the British Mission to the Manhattan Project. She also met the project's director, [[Major General (United States)|Major General]] [[Leslie Groves]]. She spoke at [[Smith College]], and went to Chicago, where she met Enrico Fermi, [[Edward Teller]], [[Victor Weisskopf]] and Leo Szilard.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=330–333}} On 8 July, Meitner boarded the {{RMS|Queen Mary||6}} for England, where she met with [[Erwin Schrödinger]], Wolfgang Pauli and Max Born. There were belated celebrations for the 300th birthday of [[Isaac Newton]], but the only German invited to attend was Max Planck.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=334–335}}

[[File:Chemist Lise Meitner with students.jpg|thumb|left|Meitner with students on the steps of the chemistry building at [[Bryn Mawr College]] in April 1959]]
For her friends in Sweden, Siegbahn's opposition to Meitner's Nobel Prize was the final straw, and they resolved to get her a better position. In 1947, Meitner moved to the [[Royal Institute of Technology]] (KTH) in Stockholm, where {{ill|Gudmund Borelius|sv}} established a new facility for atomic research. There had been scant nuclear physics research in Sweden, which was blamed on Siegbahn's lack of support for Meitner's work, and now such knowledge seemed vital for Sweden's future. At the KTH, Meitner had three rooms, two assistants, and access to technicians, with the [[Sigvard Eklund]] occupying the room next door. The intention was that Meitner would have the salary and title of a "research professor"—one without teaching duties.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=347–348}}

The professorship fell through when the [[Ministry of Education and Research (Sweden)|Minister for Education]], [[Tage Erlander]], unexpectedly became the [[Prime Minister of Sweden]] in 1946, but Borelius and Klein ensured that she had the salary of a professor, if not the title.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=358–361}} In 1949, she became a Swedish citizen, but without surrendering her Austrian citizenship thanks to a special act passed by the [[Riksdag]]. Plans were approved for [[R1 (nuclear reactor)|R1]], Sweden's first nuclear reactor, in 1947, with Eklund as the project director, and Meitner worked with him on its design and construction. In her last scientific papers in 1950 and 1951, she applied [[Magic number (physics)|magic numbers]] to nuclear fission.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=358–361}} She retired in 1960 and moved to the UK where many of her relatives were.<ref>{{cite magazine |first=Richard |last=Webb |title=Lise Meitner – Physicist who co-discovered nuclear fission |magazine=New Scientist |url=https://www.newscientist.com/people/lise-meitner/ |access-date=9 July 2024 |archive-date=10 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240810020812/https://www.newscientist.com/people/lise-meitner/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the 1950s and 1960s, Meitner enjoyed visiting Germany and staying with Hahn and his family for several days on different occasions.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=365}} Hahn wrote in his memoirs that he and Meitner had remained lifelong close friends.{{sfn|Hahn|1966|p=51}} Even though their friendship was full of trials, arguably more so experienced by Meitner, she "never voiced anything but deep affection for Hahn".{{sfn|Cropper|2004|p=343}} On occasions such as their 70th, 75th, 80th and 85th birthdays, they addressed recollections in each other's honour. Hahn emphasised Meitner's intellectual productivity, and work such as her research on the nuclear shell model, always passing over the reasons for her move to Sweden as quickly as possible. She emphasised Hahn's personal qualities, his charm and musical ability.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=365}}

[[File:Lise Meitner Grave.jpg|thumb|Meitner's grave in [[Bramley, Hampshire]]]]
A strenuous trip to the United States in 1964 led to Meitner having a heart attack, which she spent several months recovering from. Her physical and mental condition was weakened by [[atherosclerosis]]. After breaking her hip in a fall and suffering several small strokes in 1967, Meitner made a partial recovery, but was eventually weakened to the point where she had to move into a Cambridge nursing home.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=379}} Meitner died in her sleep on 27 October 1968 at the age of 89. She was not informed of the deaths of Otto Hahn on 28 July 1968 or his wife Edith on 14 August, as her family believed it would be too much for someone so frail.<ref name="nytobit">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1968/10/28/archives/lise-meitner-dies-atomic-pioneer-89-lise-meitner-physicist-is-dead.html|title=Lise Meitner Dies; Atomic Pioneer, 89. Lise Meitner, Physicist, Is Dead. Paved Way for Splitting of Atom.|date=28 October 1968|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=18 April 2008|archive-date=23 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180723065420/https://www.nytimes.com/1968/10/28/archives/lise-meitner-dies-atomic-pioneer-89-lise-meitner-physicist-is-dead.html|url-status=live}}</ref> As was her wish, she was buried in the village of [[Bramley, Hampshire|Bramley]] in Hampshire, at [[St James' Church, Bramley|St James parish church]], close to her younger brother Walter, who had died in 1964.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=380}} Her nephew Frisch composed the inscription on her headstone. It reads:
{{blockquote|Lise Meitner: a physicist who never lost her humanity.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=380}}}}

==Awards and honours==
Meitner was praised by Albert Einstein as the "German [[Marie Curie]]".<ref name="wapost"/> On her visit to the US in 1946, she received the honour "Woman of the Year" from the [[National Press Club (United States)|National Press Club]] and had dinner with the President of the United States, [[Harry S. Truman]], at the [[Women's National Press Club]].{{sfn|Yruma|2008|pp=161–164}} She received the Leibniz Medal from the [[Prussian Academy of Sciences]] in 1924, the [[Lieben Prize]] from the [[Austrian Academy of Sciences]] in 1925, the Ellen Richards Prize in 1928, the City of Vienna Prize for science in 1947, [[Max Planck Medal]] of the [[German Physical Society]] jointly with Hahn in 1949, the inaugural [[Otto Hahn Prize]] of the [[German Chemical Society]] in 1954,{{sfn|Frisch|1970|p=415}} the [[Wilhelm Exner Medal]] in 1960,<ref>{{cite web |title=Lise Meitner |url=https://www.wilhelmexner.org/medalists/lise-meitner/ |access-date=13 July 2020 |publisher=Österreichischer Gewerbeverein |language=de |archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803112647/https://www.wilhelmexner.org/medalists/lise-meitner/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and in 1967, the [[Austrian Decoration for Science and Art]].<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=Der Standard |language=de |title=Ehre, wem Ehre nicht unbedingt gebührt |trans-title=Honour Where Honor is Not Necessarily Due |first=Klaus |last=Taschwer |date=21 June 2019 |url=https://www.derstandard.at/story/2000105140598/ehre-wem-ehre-nicht-unbedingt-gebuehrt |access-date=13 July 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803114321/https://www.derstandard.at/story/2000105140598/ehre-wem-ehre-nicht-unbedingt-gebuehrt |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Lise Meitner Denkmal Unter den Linden Berlin (3).JPG|thumb|left|upright|Statue of Meitner by {{ill|Anna Franziska Schwarzbach|de}} at [[Humboldt University of Berlin]] ]]
The [[President of Germany]], [[Theodor Heuss]], awarded Meitner the highest German order for scientists, the peace class of the [[Pour le Mérite]] in 1957, the same year as Hahn.{{sfn|Frisch|1970|p=415}} Meitner became a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1945, and a full member in 1951, permitting her to participate in the Nobel Prize process.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=359}} Four years later she was elected a [[Foreign Member of the Royal Society]].{{sfn|Frisch|1970|p=405}} She was also elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] in 1960.<ref>{{cite web |title=Members of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences: 1780–2012 |page=363 |url=http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterM.pdf |publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences |access-date=29 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180921074103/https://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterM.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2018 }}</ref> She received honorary doctorates from [[Adelphi College]], the [[University of Rochester]], [[Rutgers University]] and Smith College in the United States,{{sfn|Frisch|1970|p=415}} the [[Free University of Berlin]] in Germany,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Emeriti and Honorary Doctors |date=23 January 2020 |publisher=Free University of Berlin |url=https://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/en/forschung/ehemalige-und-ehrendoktoren/index.html |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=26 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026044812/http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/en/forschung/ehemalige-und-ehrendoktoren/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[University of Stockholm]] in Sweden.{{sfn|Frisch|1970|p=415}}

In September 1966 the [[United States Atomic Energy Commission]] jointly awarded the [[Enrico Fermi Award]] to Hahn, Strassmann and Meitner for their discovery of fission. The ceremony was held in the [[Hofburg]] palace in Vienna.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1966/09/24/archives/europeans-receive-fermi-prize-for-nuclear-fission-research.html |access-date=10 June 2020 |title=Europeans Receive Fermi Prize For Nuclear Fission Research |newspaper=The New York Times |date=24 September 1966 |archive-date=10 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610001139/https://www.nytimes.com/1966/09/24/archives/europeans-receive-fermi-prize-for-nuclear-fission-research.html |url-status=live }}</ref> It was the first time that this prize had been awarded to non-Americans, and the first time it was presented to a woman.{{sfn|Hahn|1966|p=183}} Meitner's diploma bore the words: "For pioneering research in the naturally occurring radioactivities and extensive experimental studies leading to the discovery of fission".<ref>{{cite web |title=Fermi Lise Meitner, 1966 |date=28 December 2010 |publisher=U.S. DOE Office of Science |url=https://science.osti.gov/fermi/Award-Laureates/1960s/meitner |access-date=12 July 2020 |archive-date=12 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200712225418/https://science.osti.gov/fermi/Award-Laureates/1960s/meitner |url-status=live }}</ref> Hahn's diploma was slightly different: "For pioneering research in the naturally occurring radioactivities and extensive experimental studies culminating in the discovery of fission."<ref>{{cite web |title=Fermi Otto Hahn, 1966 |date=28 December 2010 |publisher=U.S. DOE Office of Science |url=https://science.osti.gov/fermi/Award-Laureates/1960s/hahn |access-date=12 July 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803105432/https://science.osti.gov/fermi/Award-Laureates/1960s/hahn |url-status=live }}</ref> Hahn and Strassmann were present, but Meitner was too ill to attend, so Frisch accepted the award on her behalf.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=379–380}} [[Glenn Seaborg]], the discoverer of plutonium, presented it to her in the home of Max Perutz in Cambridge on 23 October 1966.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=379–380}}

[[File:Lise Meitner Denkmal vor dem Lise-Meitner-Wohnheim in Kaiserslautern2.jpg|thumb|upright|Lise Meitner memorial in front of the Lise Meitner dormitory in [[Kaiserslautern]]]]
After her death in 1968, Meitner received many naming honours. In 1997, element 109 was named [[meitnerium]]. She is the first and so far the only non-mythological woman thus exclusively honoured (since [[curium]] was named after both Marie and [[Pierre Curie]]).<ref name="wapost" /><ref name="hahn-nobel-lecture">{{cite web |title=From the natural transmutations of uranium to its artificial fission. Nobel Lecture. |last=Hahn |first=Otto |date=13 December 1946 |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1944/hahn/lecture/ |publisher=Nobel Foundation |access-date=14 October 2020 |archive-date=14 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014115718/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1944/hahn/lecture/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="otto-hahn-prophysik">{{cite web|title=Otto Hahn&nbsp;– Entdecker der Kernspaltung|author=Hardy, Anne|date=4 March 2004|url=http://www.pro-physik.de/Phy/leadArticle.do?laid=4049|publisher=Pro Physik, Wiley Interscience GmbH|access-date=24 September 2007|language=de|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012082818/http://www.pro-physik.de/Phy/leadArticle.do?laid=4049|archive-date=12 October 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> Additional naming honours are the [[Hahn–Meitner-Institut]] in Berlin,<ref>{{cite web |title=Predecessor facility HMI |publisher=Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie |url=https://www.helmholtz-berlin.de/zentrum/forschungszentrum/campus/historie/lise-meitner-campus/index_en.html |access-date=12 July 2020 |archive-date=12 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200712225418/https://www.helmholtz-berlin.de/zentrum/forschungszentrum/campus/historie/lise-meitner-campus/index_en.html |url-status=live }}</ref> craters [[Meitner (lunar crater)|on the Moon]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Planetary Names: Crater, craters: Meitner on Moon |publisher=United States Geological Survey |url=https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/3807 |access-date=12 July 2020 |archive-date=12 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200712225855/https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/3807 |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Meitner (crater on Venus)|Venus]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Planetary Names: Crater, craters: Meitner on Venus |publisher=United States Geological Survey |url=https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/3808 |access-date=12 July 2020 |archive-date=15 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715124203/https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/3808 |url-status=live }}</ref> and the main-belt asteroid [[6999 Meitner]].<ref>{{cite web |title=IAU Minor Planet Center |publisher=International Astronomical Union |url=https://minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=6999 |access-date=12 July 2020 |archive-date=20 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320052145/http://www.minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=6999 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2000, the [[European Physical Society]] established the biennial [[Lise Meitner Prize]] for excellent research in nuclear science.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eps.org/?NPD_prizes_LMeitner |title=EPS Nuclear Physics Division – Lise Meitner Prize |publisher=European Physical Society |access-date=12 December 2015 |archive-date=10 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141010211854/http://www.eps.org/?NPD_prizes_LMeitner |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2006 the "Gothenburg Lise Meitner Award" was established by the [[University of Gothenburg]] and [[Chalmers University of Technology]] in Sweden; it is awarded annually to a scientist who has made a breakthrough in physics.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chalmers.se/en/centres/gpc/activities/lisemeitner/Pages/default.aspx |title=Gothenburg Lise Meitner Award |publisher=Chalmers University of Technology |access-date=12 December 2015 |archive-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923202245/http://www.chalmers.se/en/centres/gpc/activities/lisemeitner/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> In October 2010, the building at the Free University of Berlin that had once housed the KWI for Chemistry, and had been known as the Otto Hahn Building since 1956, was renamed the Hahn-Meitner Building,<ref>{{cite web |first=Viola |last=Neukam |title='More than Just a Name Change': Freie Universität Renames Otto Hahn Building as Hahn-Meitner Building |date=28 October 2010 |url=https://www.fu-berlin.de/en/presse/informationen/fup/2010/fup_10_326/index.html |publisher=Free University of Berlin |access-date=4 June 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803220842/https://www.fu-berlin.de/en/presse/informationen/fup/2010/fup_10_326/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and in July 2014 a statue of Meitner was unveiled in the garden of the Humboldt University of Berlin next to similar statues of [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] and [[Max Planck]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.tagesspiegel.de/wissen/lise-meitner-grosse-physikerin-spaete-ehrung/10170792.html |title=Große Physikerin, späte Ehrung |trans-title=Great Physicist, Belated Honour |first=Astrid |last=Herbold |newspaper=[[Der Tagesspiegel]] |date=9 July 2014 |language=de |access-date=14 July 2014 |archive-date=14 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714134505/http://www.tagesspiegel.de/wissen/lise-meitner-grosse-physikerin-spaete-ehrung/10170792.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Schools and streets were named after her in many cities in Austria and Germany,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hh.schule.de/lmg/lmghp/pmwiki.php?n=Schule.Home|title=Lise Meitner Gymnasium: Hamburg|website=www.hh.schule.de|language=de|publisher=Offenes Hamburger|access-date=5 March 2016|archive-date=28 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160728235228/http://www.hh.schule.de/lmg/lmghp/pmwiki.php?n=Schule.Home|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://hp.lise-meitner-gymnasium.de/|title=Lise-Meitner-Gymnasium|website=hp.lise-meitner-gymnasium.de|publisher=LMG Falkensee|language=de|access-date=5 March 2016|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304094513/http://hp.lise-meitner-gymnasium.de/|url-status=live}}</ref> and a short residential street in Bramley, her resting place, is named Meitner Close.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Lise Meitner |url=https://www.bramleypc.co.uk/attachments/article/623/BPM_October2018.pdf |magazine=The Bramley Magazine |date=October 2018 |page=15 |access-date=10 July 2024 |archive-date=9 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240709211340/https://www.bramleypc.co.uk/attachments/article/623/BPM_October2018.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Since 2008 the [[Austrian Physical Society]] and the German Physical Society have organized the [[Lise Meitner Lectures]], a series of annual public talks given by distinguished female physicists,<ref>{{cite web |title=Lise-Meitner Lectures |publisher=German Physical Society |url=https://www.dpg-physik.de/aktivitaeten-und-programme/vortragsreihen/lise-meitner-lectures/lise-meitner-lectures?set_language=en |access-date=12 July 2020 |archive-date=12 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200712230224/https://www.dpg-physik.de/aktivitaeten-und-programme/vortragsreihen/lise-meitner-lectures/lise-meitner-lectures?set_language=en |url-status=live }}</ref> and since 2015 the [[AlbaNova]] University Centre in Stockholm has had an annual [[Lise Meitner Distinguished Lecture]].<ref>{{cite web |title=LiseMeitnerLecture |publisher=Royal Institute of Technology |url=http://www.theophys.kth.se/~egor/LiseMeitnerLecture.html |access-date=12 July 2020 |archive-date=11 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611054853/http://www.theophys.kth.se/~egor/LiseMeitnerLecture.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2016, the [[Institute of Physics]] in the UK established the [[Meitner Medal]] for public engagement within physics.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iop.org/about/awards/subject/widening-participation-public-engagement/page_68106.html |title=Physics education and widening participation within it and public engagement within physics |publisher=Institute of Physics |access-date=23 August 2018 |archive-date=24 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180824065910/http://www.iop.org/about/awards/subject/widening-participation-public-engagement/page_68106.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2017, the [[Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy]] in the United States named a major nuclear energy research program after her.<ref>{{cite web |title=MEITNER: Modeling-Enhanced Innovations Trailblazing Nuclear Energy Reinvigoration |url=https://arpa-e.energy.gov/?q=arpa-e-programs/meitner |publisher=United States Department of Energy |date=20 October 2017 |access-date=14 October 2021 |archive-date=12 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200812160350/https://arpa-e.energy.gov/?q=arpa-e-programs%2Fmeitner |url-status=dead }}</ref> On 6 November 2020, a satellite named after her ([[ÑuSat|ÑuSat 16]] or "Lise", COSPAR 2020-079H) was launched.<ref>{{cite web |title=Post Launch Report |publisher=Satellogic |url=https://mailchi.mp/ace3dfcbde8a/dedicated_launch |access-date=3 March 2023 |archive-date=6 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706103955/https://mailchi.mp/ace3dfcbde8a/dedicated_launch |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] named its library<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 July 2016 |title=IAEA Lise Meitner Library |url=https://www.iaea.org/resources/library |access-date=7 January 2024 |publisher=International Atomic Energy Agency |language=en |archive-date=7 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240107122315/https://www.iaea.org/resources/library |url-status=live }}</ref> in her honour and established a programme to "provide early- and mid‑career women professionals with opportunities to participate in a multi-week visiting professional programme and advance their technical and soft skills".<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 February 2023 |title=Lise Meitner Programme |url=https://www.iaea.org/services/key-programmes/lise-meitner-programme |access-date=7 January 2024 |publisher=International Atomic Energy Agency |language=en |archive-date=7 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240107122316/https://www.iaea.org/services/key-programmes/lise-meitner-programme |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Footnotes==

{{notelist|30em}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite journal |last=Bernstein |first=Jeremy |author-link=Jeremy Bernstein |date=1 May 2011 |title=A Memorandum that Changed the World |journal=American Journal of Physics |volume=79 |issue=5 |pages=441–446 |doi=10.1119/1.3533426 |issn=0002-9505 |bibcode=2011AmJPh..79..440B|s2cid=7928950 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/be8e/150271d51355d17dab7d0812f852b4f3bc07.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190304013503/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/be8e/150271d51355d17dab7d0812f852b4f3bc07.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 March 2019 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Crawford |first1=Elisabeth |first2=Ruth Lewin |last2=Sime |author-link2=Ruth Lewin Sime |first3=Mark |last3=Walker |title=A Nobel Tale of Postwar Injustice |journal=Physics Today |issn=0031-9228 |volume=50 |issue=9 |pages=26–32 |date=1997 |doi=10.1063/1.881933 |bibcode=1997PhT....50i..26C}}
* {{cite book |last1=Cropper |first1=William H. |title=Great Physicists: The Life and Times of Leading Physicists from Galileo to Hawking |date=2004| publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-517324-6 |oclc=917369352 }}
* {{cite book |last=Dawidoff |first=Nicholas |author-link=Nicholas Dawidoff |title=The Catcher was a Spy |title-link=The Catcher Was a Spy |location=New York |year=1994 |publisher=Pantheon Books |isbn=978-0-679-41566-4 |oclc=29313997 }}
* {{cite journal |title=The History of the Discovery of Nuclear Fission |first=Jack E. |last=Fergusson |journal=Foundations of Chemistry |issn=1386-4238 |volume=13 |issue=2 |date=July 2011 |pages=145–166 |doi=10.1007/s10698-011-9112-2 |s2cid=93361285 }}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Frisch |first1= Otto Robert |author-link=Otto Robert Frisch |title=Lise Meitner. 1878–1968 |journal=Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society |issn=0080-4606 |volume=16 |pages=405–426 |year=1970 |doi=10.1098/rsbm.1970.0016 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last=Frisch |first=Otto Robert |author-link=Otto Robert Frisch |title=What Little I Remember |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |year=1979 |isbn=0-521-40583-1 |oclc=861058137 }}
* {{cite journal |last1= Hahn |first1= Otto |title= The Discovery of Fission |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0258-76 |journal= Scientific American |volume= 198 |issue= 2 |pages=76–84 |year= 1958 |bibcode= 1958SciAm.198b..76H}}
* {{cite book |last=Hahn |first=Otto |translator-first=Willy |translator-last=Ley |translator-link=Willy Ley |title=Otto Hahn: A Scientific Autobiography |year=1966 |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |location=New York |oclc=646422716 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Hughes |first= Jeff |date=29 December 2008 |volume=29 |pages=131–165 |title=Making isotopes matter: Francis Aston and the mass-spectrograph |journal=Dynamis |issn=0211-9536 |doi=10.4321/S0211-95362009000100007 |doi-access=free |hdl=10481/77556 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Lanouette |first1=William |last2=Silard |first2=Bela |title=Genius in the Shadows: A Biography of Leo Szilard: The Man Behind The Bomb |publisher=Skyhorse Publishing |location=New York |year=1992 |isbn=1-626-36023-5 |oclc= 25508555 }}
* {{cite book |last=Offereins |first=Marianne |contribution=Lise Meitner (1878–1968) |date=27 April 2011 |title=European Women in Chemistry |pages=69–74 |editor-last1=Apotheker |editor-first1=Jan |editor2-last=Simon Sarkadi|editor2-first=Livia |location=Weinheim, Germany |publisher=Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA |doi=10.1002/9783527636457.ch18 |isbn=978-3-527-63645-7 |oclc=773564825  }}
* {{cite book |last=Perutz |first=Max F. |author-link=Max Perutz |title=I Wish I'd Made You Angry Earlier: Essays on Science, Scientists, and Humanity |year=2002 |location=New York |publisher=Cold Spring Laboratory Press |chapter=Splitting the Atom |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GkODMkCWndQC&pg=PA27 |isbn=978-0-87969-524-8 |oclc=37721221 |access-date=11 July 2020 |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119060621/https://books.google.com/books?id=GkODMkCWndQC&pg=PA27 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Rhodes |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Rhodes |title=The Making of the Atomic Bomb |title-link= The Making of the Atomic Bomb |date=1986 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |location=New York |isbn=0-671-65719-4 |oclc=224864936 }}
* {{cite journal |title=Discovery of Nuclear Fission |first=Emilio G. |last=Segrè |author-link=Emilio Segrè |journal=Physics Today |volume=42 |issue=7 |date=July 1989 |pages=38–43 |doi=10.1063/1.881174 |bibcode=1989PhT....42g..38S }}
* {{cite book |last1=Sexl |first1=Lore |first2=Anne |last2=Hardy |title=Lise Meitner |publisher=Rowohlt Verlag |location=Hamburg |year=2002 |language=de |isbn=978-3-499-50439-6 |oclc=770105690 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Sime |first=Ruth Lewin |author-link=Ruth Lewin Sime |title=The Discovery of Protactinium |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |issn=0021-9584 |volume=63 |issue=8 |pages=653–657 |date=August 1986 |doi=10.1021/ed063p653 |bibcode=1986JChEd..63..653S }}
* {{cite journal |last=Sime |first=Ruth Lewin |author-link=Ruth Lewin Sime |title=Lise Meitner and the Discovery of Fission |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |issn=0021-9584 |volume=66 |issue=5 |date=May 1989 |pages=373–376 |doi=10.1021/ed066p373 |bibcode=1989JChEd..66..373S |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last=Sime |first=Ruth Lewin |author-link=Ruth Lewin Sime |title=Lise Meitner's Escape from Germany |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/252687986 |journal=American Journal of Physics |issn=0002-9505 |volume=58 |issue=3 |date=March 1990 |pages=262–267 |doi=10.1119/1.16196 |bibcode=1990AmJPh..58..262S |access-date=25 September 2020 |archive-date=8 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220208044156/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/252687986_Lise_Meitner%27s_escape_from_Germany |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last=Sime |first=Ruth Lewin |author-link=Ruth Lewin Sime |title=Lise Meitner in Sweden 1938–1960: Exile from physics |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/253501777 |journal=American Journal of Physics |issn=0002-9505 |volume=62 |issue=8 |date=August 1994 |pages=695–701 |doi=10.1119/1.17498 |bibcode=1994AmJPh..62..695S |access-date=25 September 2020 |archive-date=8 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220208044157/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/253501777_Lise_Meitner_in_Sweden_1938-1960_Exile_from_physics |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Sime |first=Ruth Lewin |author-link=Ruth Lewin Sime |year=1996 |title=Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=978-0-520-08906-8 |oclc=32893857 |url=https://archive.org/details/lisemeitnerlifei00sime }}
* {{cite book |last=Sime |first=Ruth Lewin |author-link=Ruth Lewin Sime |title=From Exceptional Prominence to Prominent Exception: Lise Meitner at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry |series=History of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute under National Socialism |id=No. 24 |url=http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/KWG/Ergebnisse/Ergebnisse24.pdf |publisher=Geschichte der Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft im Nationalsozialismus |date=2005 |access-date=26 November 2015 |archive-date=30 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131030042706/http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/KWG/Ergebnisse/Ergebnisse24.pdf |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last=Sime |first=Ruth Lewin |author-link=Ruth Lewin Sime |journal=Physics in Perspective |issn=1422-6944 |date=15 June 2010 |title=An Inconvenient History: The Nuclear-Fission Display in the Deutsches Museum |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=190–218 |doi=10.1007/s00016-009-0013-x |bibcode=2010PhP....12..190S |s2cid=120584702 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Spence |first=Robert |year=1970 |title=Otto Hahn 1879–1968 |journal=Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society |volume=16 |pages=279–313 |doi=10.1098/rsbm.1970.0010 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last=Steinhauser |first=G. |title=Hahn and Strassmann's First Credible, Yet Erroneous Approximation to the Discovery of Nuclear Fission |journal=European Physical Journal H |issn=2102-6459 |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=265–266 |date=2016 |doi=10.1140/epjh/e2016-70043-y |bibcode=2016EPJH...41..265S }}
* {{cite book |last=Stolz|first=Werner |title=Otto Hahn/Lise Meitner |chapter=Die Arbeitsgemeinschaft Hahn – Meitner |trans-chapter=The Hahn-Meitner Work Group |date=1989 |doi=10.1007/978-3-322-82223-9_3 |series=Biographien Hervorragender Naturwissenschaftler, Techniker und Mediziner |pages=19–41 |language=de |publisher=Vieweg+Teubner Verlag |location=Leipzig |isbn=978-3-322-00685-1 |oclc=263971970 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Stuewer |first= Roger H. |author-link=Roger H. Stuewer |title=Bringing the News of Fission to America |journal=Physics Today |issn=0031-9228 |volume=38 |issue=10 |date=October 1985 |pages=48–56 |doi=10.1063/1.881016 |bibcode=1985PhT....38j..48S }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Van der Kloot |first1=W. |title=April 1915: Five Future Nobel Prize-Winners Inaugurate Weapons of Mass Destruction and the Academic-Industrial-Military Complex |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |date=2004 |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=149–160 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.2004.0053|s2cid=145243958}}
* {{cite journal |last=Walker |first=Mark |title=Otto Hahn: Responsibility and Repression |date=May 2006 |journal=Physics in Perspective |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=116–163 |issn=1422-6944 |doi=10.1007/s00016-006-0277-3 |bibcode=2006PhP.....8..116W |s2cid=120992662 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Watkins |first=Sallie A.|author-link=Sallie Watkins |title=Lise Meitner and the Beta-Ray Energy Controversy: An historical Perspective |journal=American Journal of Physics |issn=0002-9505 |volume=51 |issue=6 |date=June 1983 |pages=551–553 |doi=10.1119/1.13201 |bibcode=1983AmJPh..51..551W }}
* {{cite journal |last=Watkins |first=Sallie A. |author-link=Sallie Watkins|date=January 1984 |title=The Making of a Physicist |journal=The Physics Teacher |issn=0031-921X |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=12–15 |doi=10.1119/1.2341442 |bibcode=1984PhTea..22...12W }}
* {{cite thesis |last=Yruma |first=Jeris Stueland |title=How Experiments Are Remembered: The Discovery of Nuclear Fission, 1938–1968 |publisher=Princeton University |degree=PhD |date=November 2008|oclc=297148928}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Frisch |editor-first=Otto Robert |editor-link=Otto Robert Frisch |year=1959|title=Trends in Atomic Physics: Essays Dedicated to Lise Meitner, Otto Hahn, Max von Laue on the Occasion of their 80th Birthday|publisher=Interscience|location=New York |oclc=1547540 |ref=none}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Goldberg |first=Stanley |title=With friends like these . ... |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |date=July 1996 |pages=55–57 |doi=10.1080/00963402.1996.11456645 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hAsAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA55 |ref=none }} Contemporaneous review of [[Ruth Lewin Sime]]'s biography of Meitner.
* {{SKBL|author=Hedqvist, Hedvig}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Lykknes |editor-first1=Annette |editor-last2=Van Tiggelen |editor-first2=Brigitte |title=Women In Their Element: Selected Women's Contributions To The Periodic System |location=New Jersey |publisher=World Scientific | year=2019| isbn=978-9-811206-28-3 |oclc=1104056222 |ref=none }}
* {{Cite book |first=Lise |last=Meitner |editor1-first=Dietrich |editor1-last=Hahn |year=2005 |title=Erinnerungen an Otto Hahn |language=de |trans-title=Recollections of Otto Hahn |publisher=S. Hirzel |location=Stuttgart |isbn=978-3-7776-1380-2 |oclc=180889711|ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rife |first=Patricia |year=1999 |title=Lise Meitner and the Dawn of the Nuclear Age |isbn=978-0-8176-3732-3 |oclc=38130718 |publisher=Birkhäuser |location=Boston |ref=none }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Lise Meitner}}
*[https://archivesearch.lib.cam.ac.uk/repositories/9/resources/1733 Catalogue] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105142118/https://archivesearch.lib.cam.ac.uk/repositories/9/resources/1733 |date=5 November 2021 }} of the Lise Meitner papers at the [https://www.chu.cam.ac.uk/archives/ Churchill Archives Centre] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222070320/https://www.chu.cam.ac.uk/archives/ |date=22 December 2019 }}
* [http://cwp.library.ucla.edu/Phase2/Meitner,_Lise@844904033.html "Lise Meitner"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224120938/http://cwp.library.ucla.edu/Phase2/Meitner,_Lise@844904033.html |date=24 December 2019 }}, "Contributions of 20th-Century Women to Physics" (CWP), [[University of California, Los Angeles]]
* [https://www.wired.com/thisdayintech/2010/02/0211lise-meitner-publishes-nuclear-fission Wired.com: "February 11, 1939: Lise Meitner, 'Our Madame Curie'"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140305180911/https://www.wired.com/thisdayintech/2010/02/0211lise-meitner-publishes-nuclear-fission |date=5 March 2014 }}
* [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B1yz8B3IPltmeGk2T0J4VlhialE/edit?usp= "Lise Meitner", B. Weintraub, Chemistry in Israel, no. 21, May 2006, p. 35.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803102249/https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B1yz8B3IPltmeGk2T0J4VlhialE/edit?usp= |date=3 August 2020 }}
* [https://library.oapen.org/viewer/web/viewer.html?file=/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/32406/611233.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Meitner, Lise] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201162426/https://library.oapen.org/viewer/web/viewer.html?file=%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F20.500.12657%2F32406%2F611233.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1&isAllowed=y |date=1 February 2023 }} at [[biografiA Encyclopedia of Austrian Women]]
* [https://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/women-physics Elise Meitner: Co-discoverer of Nuclear Fission] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316172815/https://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/women-physics |date=16 March 2023 }}
<!---* [https://www.nps.gov/people/lise-meitner.htm "Elise Meitner" NPS] --->

{{Authority control}}
{{portal bar|Austria|Biography|History of science|Nuclear technology|Physics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Meitner, Lise}}
[[Category:1878 births]]
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[[Category:20th-century Austrian physicists]]
[[Category:20th-century Swedish physicists]]
[[Category:20th-century Austrian women scientists]]
[[Category:Austrian women physicists]]
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[[Category:Austrian nuclear physicists]]
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[[Category:Foreign members of the Royal Society]]
[[Category:Enrico Fermi Award recipients]]
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[[Category:Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)]]
[[Category:Winners of the Max Planck Medal]]
[[Category:Converts to Lutheranism from Judaism]]
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[[Category:Otto Hahn]]
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[[Category:20th-century Swedish women scientists]]

Nvidia

{{Short description|American multinational technology company}}
{{Use American English|date=June 2024}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Nvidia Corporation
| logo = [[File:NVIDIA logo.svg|frameless|upright=1.2|class=skin-invert]]
| logo_caption = Logo used since 2006
| image = 2788-2888 San Tomas Expwy.jpg
| image_upright = 1.2
| image_caption = Headquarters in [[Santa Clara, California]], in 2023
| trade_name = NVIDIA
| type = [[Public company|Public]]
| traded_as = {{Unbulleted list
  | {{NASDAQ|NVDA}}
  | [[Nasdaq-100]] component
  | [[DJIA]] component
  | [[S&P 100]] component
  | [[S&P 500]] component
  }}
| industry = [[Semiconductor industry|Semiconductors]]
| foundation = {{start date and age|1993|4|5}}, in [[Sunnyvale, California]], U.S
| founders = {{Unbulleted list
  | [[Jensen Huang]]
  | [[Chris Malachowsky]]
  | [[Curtis Priem]]
  }}
| hq_location_city = [[Santa Clara, California]]
| hq_location_country = U.S
| area_served = Worldwide
| key_people = {{Unbulleted list
  | Jensen Huang<!-- Please do not link; this has been already linked. See [[WP:OVERLINK]] --> ([[President (corporate title)|president]] and [[Chief executive officer|CEO]])
  | [[Bill Dally]] (chief scientist)}}
| products = 
| revenue = {{increase}} {{US$|60.92 billion|link=yes}} ([[Fiscal year|FY]] 2024)
| operating_income = {{increase}} {{US$|32.97 billion}} (FY 2024)
| net_income = {{increase}} {{US$|29.76 billion}} (FY 2024)
| assets = {{nowrap| {{increase}} {{US$|65.73 billion}} (FY 2024)}}
| equity = {{increase}} {{US$|42.98 billion}} (FY 2024)
| num_employees = 29,600 (FY 2024)
| footnotes = <ref name=10K>{{cite web |title=US SEC: Form 10-K Nvidia Corporation |url=https://www.sec.gov/ix?doc=/Archives/edgar/data/1045810/000104581024000029/nvda-20240128.htm |publisher=[[U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission]] |date=February 21, 2024 |access-date=February 21, 2024 |archive-date=February 21, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240221215223/https://www.sec.gov/ix?doc=/Archives/edgar/data/1045810/000104581024000029/nvda-20240128.htm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=subsid>{{cite web |title=US SEC: EXHIBIT 21.1: List of Nvidia subsidiaries |url=https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1045810/000104581023000017/listofregistrantssubsidiar.htm |publisher=[[U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission]] |date=February 24, 2023 |access-date=November 3, 2023 |archive-date=November 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231103040909/https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1045810/000104581023000017/listofregistrantssubsidiar.htm |url-status=live}}</ref>
| divisions = 
| subsid = {{Unbulleted list
  | [[Bright Computing]]
  | [[Cumulus Networks]]
  | [[DeepMap]]
  | [[Mellanox Technologies]]
  | [[Nvidia Advanced Rendering Center]]}}
| homepage = {{url|https://www.nvidia.com/|nvidia.com}}
}}

'''Nvidia Corporation'''{{efn|1=Officially written as '''NVIDIA''' and stylized in its logo as <span style="font-size: 1.400em">'''n'''</span>'''VIDIA''' with the lowercase "n" the same height as the uppercase "VIDIA"; formerly stylized as <span style="font-size: 1.400em">'''''n'''''</span>'''VIDIA''' with a large italicized lowercase "n" on products from the mid 1990s to early-mid 2000s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NVIDIA Logo Guidelines at a Glance |url=http://international.download.nvidia.com/partnerforce-us/Brand-Guidelines/NVIDIA_LogoGuidelines.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://international.download.nvidia.com/partnerforce-us/Brand-Guidelines/NVIDIA_LogoGuidelines.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live |access-date=March 21, 2018 |website=nvidia.com |publisher=Nvidia}}</ref> The unofficial capitalization '''nVidia''' may be found within enthusiast communities and publications.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Morgan |first=Timothy Prickett |title=Microsoft, nVidia tag team on HPC |url=https://www.theregister.com/2009/09/28/microsoft_nvidia_collaboration/ |access-date=March 12, 2022 |website=www.theregister.com |archive-date=April 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407214002/https://www.theregister.com/2009/09/28/microsoft_nvidia_collaboration/ |url-status=live}}</ref>}} ({{IPAc-en|ɛ|n|ˈ|v|ɪ|d|i|ə}} {{respell|en|VID|ee|ə}}) is an American multinational corporation and technology company headquartered in [[Santa Clara, California]], and [[Delaware General Corporation Law|incorporated in Delaware]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=NVIDIA Corporation – Investor Resources – FAQs |url=https://investor.nvidia.com/investor-resources/faqs/default.aspx |website=investor.nvidia.com |access-date=December 31, 2017 |archive-date=June 4, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230604101401/https://investor.nvidia.com/investor-resources/faqs/default.aspx |url-status=live}}</ref> Founded in 1993 by [[Jensen Huang]] (president and CEO), [[Chris Malachowsky]], and [[Curtis Priem]], it is a software company which designs and supplies [[graphics processing unit]]s (GPUs), [[application programming interface]]s (APIs) for data science and [[high-performance computing]], and [[system on a chip]] units (SoCs) for [[mobile computing]] and the automotive market. Nvidia is also a leading supplier of [[artificial intelligence]] (AI) hardware and software.<ref name="VB">{{Cite web |last=Goldman |first=Sharon |title=How Nvidia dominated AI — and plans to keep it that way as generative AI explodes |url=https://venturebeat.com/ai/how-nvidia-dominated-ai-and-plans-to-keep-it-that-way-as-generative-ai-explodes/ |date=February 23, 2023 |website=[[VentureBeat]] |access-date=March 1, 2023 |archive-date=March 1, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230301074856/https://venturebeat.com/ai/how-nvidia-dominated-ai-and-plans-to-keep-it-that-way-as-generative-ai-explodes/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Nvidia [[Fabless manufacturing|outsources the manufacturing]] of the hardware it designs.<ref name=":5">{{Cite news |date=May 25, 2023 |title=Nvidia: The chip maker that became an AI superpower |language=en |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-65675027 |access-date=January 2, 2024 |archive-date=December 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231223180949/https://www.bbc.com/news/business-65675027 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Nvidia's professional line of GPUs are used for [[Edge computing|edge-to-cloud]] computing and in [[supercomputers]] and [[workstations]] for applications in fields such as architecture, engineering and construction, media and entertainment, automotive, scientific research, and manufacturing design.<ref name="Smith">{{Cite web |last=Smith |first=Ryan |title=Quadro No More? NVIDIA Announces Ampere-based RTX A6000 & A40 Video Cards For Pro Visualization |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/16137/nvidia-announces-ampere-rtx-a6000-a40-cards-for-pro-viz |access-date=March 10, 2021 |website=www.anandtech.com |archive-date=October 5, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201005134015/https://www.anandtech.com/show/16137/nvidia-announces-ampere-rtx-a6000-a40-cards-for-pro-viz |url-status=live}}</ref> Its [[GeForce]] line of GPUs are aimed at the consumer market and are used in applications such as [[video editing]], [[3D rendering]], and [[PC gaming]]. With a market share of 80.2% in the second quarter of 2023,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shilov |first=Anton |date=September 6, 2023 |title=GPU Market 'Healthy and vibrant' in Q2 2023: Report |url=https://www.tomshardware.com/news/gpu-market-healthy-and-vibrant-in-q2-2023-report |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314141759/https://www.tomshardware.com/news/gpu-market-healthy-and-vibrant-in-q2-2023-report |archive-date=March 14, 2024 |access-date=March 14, 2024 |website=Tom's Hardware |language=en}}</ref> Nvidia leads global sales of discrete desktop GPUs by a wide margin. The company expanded its presence in the gaming industry with the introduction of the [[Nvidia Shield Portable|Shield Portable]] (a [[handheld game console]]), [[Nvidia Shield Tablet|Shield Tablet]] (a [[gaming tablet]]), and [[Nvidia Shield TV|Shield TV]] (a [[digital media player]]), as well as its cloud gaming service [[GeForce Now]].<ref name=chiefscientist>{{Cite magazine |last=Moore |first=Samuel K |date=September 7, 2023 |title=The Secret to Nvidia's AI Success |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/nvidia-gpu |magazine=[[IEEE Spectrum]] |access-date=November 3, 2023 |archive-date=November 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231103040911/https://spectrum.ieee.org/nvidia-gpu |url-status=live}}</ref>

In addition to GPU design and outsourcing manufacturing, Nvidia provides the [[CUDA]] software platform and API that allows the creation of massively [[parallel computing|parallel programs]] which utilize GPUs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NVIDIA Doesn't Want Cryptocurrency Miners to Buy Its Gaming GPUs |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/money/markets/nvidia-doesn-t-want-cryptocurrency-miners-to-buy-its-gaming-gpus/ar-BB1e0KzQ |access-date=April 5, 2021 |publisher=MSN |archive-date=April 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414055629/https://www.msn.com/en-us/money/markets/nvidia-doesn-t-want-cryptocurrency-miners-to-buy-its-gaming-gpus/ar-BB1e0KzQ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Elsevier">{{cite book |last1=Kirk |first1=David |last2=Hwu |first2=Wen-Mei |title=Programming Massively Parallel Processors |date=2017 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-811986-0 |page=345 |edition=Third}}</ref> They are deployed in supercomputing sites around the world.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Clark |first=Don |date=August 4, 2011 |title=J.P. Morgan Shows Benefits from Chip Change |publisher=WSJ Digits Blog |url=https://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2011/08/04/j-p-morgan-shows-benefits-from-chip-change/?mod=google_news_blog |access-date=September 14, 2011 |archive-date=September 5, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190905092020/https://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2011/08/04/j-p-morgan-shows-benefits-from-chip-change/?mod=google_news_blog |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Top500 Supercomputing Sites |url=http://www.top500.org/ |access-date=September 14, 2011 |publisher=Top500 |archive-date=December 12, 1998 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19981212033516/http://www.top500.org/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In the late 2000s, Nvidia had moved into the mobile computing market, where it produced [[Tegra]] mobile processors for smartphones and tablets and vehicle navigation and entertainment systems.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Burns |first=Chris |date=August 3, 2011 |title=2011 The Year of Nvidia dominating Android Superphones and tablets |url=http://www.slashgear.com/2011-the-year-of-nvidia-dominating-android-superphones-and-tablets-03168784/ |access-date=September 14, 2011 |publisher=SlashGear |archive-date=October 29, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029172432/https://www.slashgear.com/2011-the-year-of-nvidia-dominating-android-superphones-and-tablets-03168784/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Tegra Super Tablets |url=https://www.nvidia.com/object/tegra-supertablets.html |access-date=September 14, 2011 |publisher=Nvidia |archive-date=October 13, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013042859/http://www.nvidia.com/object/tegra-supertablets.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Tegra Super Phones |url=https://www.nvidia.com/object/tegra-superphones.html |access-date=September 14, 2011 |publisher=Nvidia |archive-date=October 13, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013031649/http://www.nvidia.com/object/tegra-superphones.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Its competitors include [[AMD]], [[Intel]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jennewine |first=Trevor |date=January 15, 2021 |title=Why Intel's Competitive Edge Is Crumbling |url=https://www.fool.com/investing/2021/01/15/why-intels-competitive-edge-is-crumbling/ |access-date=April 16, 2021 |website=The Motley Fool |language=en |archive-date=April 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416001829/https://www.fool.com/investing/2021/01/15/why-intels-competitive-edge-is-crumbling/ |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Qualcomm]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Neiger |first=Chris |date=January 26, 2021 |title=Better Buy: NVIDIA vs. Qualcomm |url=https://www.fool.com/investing/2021/01/26/better-buy-nvidia-vs-qualcomm/|access-date=April 16, 2021 |website=The Motley Fool |language=en|archive-date=April 16, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416001830/https://www.fool.com/investing/2021/01/26/better-buy-nvidia-vs-qualcomm/|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[AI accelerator]] companies such as [[Cerebras]] and [[Graphcore]]. It also makes AI-powered software for audio and video processing (e.g., [[Nvidia Maxine]]).<ref>{{cite web |title=NVIDIA Maxine |date=October 2020 |url=https://developer.nvidia.com/maxine |publisher=Nvidia Corporation |access-date=April 6, 2023 |archive-date=April 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406075957/https://developer.nvidia.com/maxine |url-status=live}}</ref>

Nvidia's attempt to acquire [[Arm (company)|Arm]] from [[SoftBank Group|SoftBank]] in September 2020 failed to materialize following extended regulatory scrutiny, leading to the termination of the deal in February 2022 in what would have been the largest semiconductor acquisition.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lyons |first=Kim |date=September 13, 2020 |title=Nvidia is acquiring Arm for $40 billion |url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/9/13/21435507/nvidia-acquiring-arm-40-billion-chips-ai-deal|access-date=September 15, 2020 |website=The Verge |language=en|archive-date=April 9, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210409090958/https://www.theverge.com/2020/9/13/21435507/nvidia-acquiring-arm-40-billion-chips-ai-deal|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="ARM-FT">{{cite web |last1=Walters |first1=Richard |title=SoftBank's $66bn sale of chip group Arm to Nvidia collapses |url=https://www.ft.com/content/59c0d5f9-ed6a-4de6-a997-f25faed58833 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/59c0d5f9-ed6a-4de6-a997-f25faed58833 |archive-date=December 10, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=February 8, 2022 |website=Financial Times |date=February 7, 2022}}</ref> In 2023, Nvidia became the seventh public U.S. company to be valued at over $1 trillion,<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 30, 2023 |title=Nvidia touches $1 trillion market cap as chipmaker rides AI wave |url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/nvidia-touches-1-trillion-market-cap-as-chipmaker-rides-ai-wave-133530381.html |access-date=February 17, 2024 |website=Yahoo Finance |language=en-US |archive-date=May 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230530135203/https://finance.yahoo.com/news/nvidia-touches-1-trillion-market-cap-as-chipmaker-rides-ai-wave-133530381.html |url-status=live}}</ref> and the company's valuation has increased rapidly since then amid growing demand for data center chips with AI capabilities in the midst of the [[AI boom]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hart |first=Robert |title=Chip Stock Rally Continues Wednesday After AI Boom Catapults Nvidia To World's Most Valuable Company |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/roberthart/2024/06/19/chip-stock-rally-continues-wednesday-after-ai-boom-catapults-nvidia-to-worlds-most-valuable-company/ |access-date=2024-08-26 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Duffy |first=Clare |date=2024-02-21 |title=AI boom drove Nvidia profits up 580% last year |url=https://www.cnn.com/2024/02/21/tech/nvidia-ai-sales-boom |access-date=2024-08-26 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref> In June 2024, for one day, Nvidia overtook [[Microsoft]] as the world's most valuable publicly traded company, with a market capitalization of over $3.3 trillion.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nvidia becomes most valuable company in the world, overtaking Microsoft |url=https://aibusiness.com/companies/nvidia-becomes-most-valuable-company-in-the-world-overtakes-microsoft}}</ref>

== History ==

=== Founding ===
[[File:2484 Berryessa Road.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Denny's]] roadside diner in [[San Jose, California]], in 2023, where Nvidia's three co-founders agreed to start the company in 1993]]
[[File:Nvidiaheadquarters.jpg|thumb|right|Nvidia's former headquarters which was home to the company through most of its pre-AI period (still in use)]]
[[File:Nvidia campus aerial.jpg|thumb|right|Aerial view of Endeavor, the first of the two new Nvidia headquarters buildings, in [[Santa Clara, California]], in 2017. [[Apple Park]] is visible in the distance.]]
[[File:NVIDIA Headquarters.jpg|thumb|right|Entrance of Endeavor headquarters building in 2018]]

Nvidia was founded on April 5, 1993,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Company Info |url=https://www.nvidia.com/page/corporate_timeline.html |access-date=November 9, 2010 |publisher=Nvidia.com |archive-date=July 1, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180701130728/http://www.nvidia.com/page/corporate_timeline.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Jensen Huang: Executive Profile & Biography |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/private/person.asp?personId=230160&privcapId=32307 |access-date=June 21, 2018 |website=[[Bloomberg News]] |archive-date=June 22, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622004950/https://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/private/person.asp?personId=230160&privcapId=32307 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="NVIDIA_Articles">{{cite web |last1=Huang |first1=Jen-Hsun |title=Articles of Incorporation of NVidia Corporation |url=https://bizfileonline.sos.ca.gov/api/report/GetImageByNum/034117059052077044090092010255252084026143162165 |website=bizfile online |publisher=California Secretary of State |access-date=October 11, 2024 |date=April 5, 1993}}</ref> by [[Jensen Huang]] (who, {{As of|2025|lc=yes}}, remains CEO), a [[Taiwanese-American]] electrical engineer who was previously the director of CoreWare at [[LSI Logic]] and a [[microprocessor]] designer at [[AMD]]; [[Chris Malachowsky]], an engineer who worked at [[Sun Microsystems]]; and [[Curtis Priem]], who was previously a senior staff engineer and graphics chip designer at [[IBM]] and Sun Microsystems.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NVIDIA Company History: Innovations Over the Years |url=https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/about-nvidia/corporate-timeline/|access-date=April 17, 2021 |website=NVIDIA |language=en-us|archive-date=March 9, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309012821/https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/about-nvidia/corporate-timeline/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=NVIDIA Corporation {{!}} History, Headquarters, & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/NVIDIA-Corporation|access-date=April 17, 2021|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|archive-date=April 26, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426123917/https://www.britannica.com/topic/NVIDIA-Corporation|url-status=live}}</ref> The three men agreed to start the company in a meeting at a Denny's roadside diner on Berryessa Road in East San Jose.<ref name="Tilley">{{cite news |last1=Tilley |first1=Aaron |date=November 30, 2016 |title=The New Intel: How Nvidia Went From Powering Video Games To Revolutionizing Artificial Intelligence |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/aarontilley/2016/11/30/nvidia-deep-learning-ai-intel/?sh=6c0e3f037ff1 |access-date=March 14, 2023 |work=Forbes |archive-date=March 14, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314141243/https://www.forbes.com/sites/aarontilley/2016/11/30/nvidia-deep-learning-ai-intel/?sh=6c0e3f037ff1 |url-status=live}} This article was written by a ''Forbes'' staff member and was published in the December 19, 2016, issue of ''Forbes'' magazine.</ref><ref name="Witt">{{cite magazine |last1=Witt |first1=Stephen |title=How Jensen Huang's Nvidia Is Powering the A.I. Revolution |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2023/12/04/how-jensen-huangs-nvidia-is-powering-the-ai-revolution |access-date=December 5, 2023 |magazine=The New Yorker |date=November 27, 2023 |archive-date=November 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231127154917/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2023/12/04/how-jensen-huangs-nvidia-is-powering-the-ai-revolution |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Whitaker">{{cite news |last1=Whitaker |first1=Bill |authorlink1=Bill Whitaker (journalist) |title=Meet Nvidia CEO Jensen Huang, the man behind the $2 trillion company powering today's artificial intelligence |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/meet-nvida-ceo-jensen-huang-company-powering-ai-today-60-minutes-transcript/ |access-date=June 19, 2024 |work=60 Minutes |date=April 28, 2024}}</ref>

At the time, Malachowsky and Priem were frustrated with Sun's management and were looking to leave, but Huang was on "firmer ground",<ref name="fortune-interview-2017">{{Cite web |last=Nusca |first=Andrew |date=November 16, 2017 |title=This Man Is Leading an AI Revolution in Silicon Valley—And He's Just Getting Started |url=https://fortune.com/2017/11/16/nvidia-ceo-jensen-huang/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116192021/http://fortune.com/2017/11/16/nvidia-ceo-jensen-huang/ |archive-date=November 16, 2017 |access-date=November 28, 2017 |website=Fortune}}</ref> in that he was already running his own division at LSI.<ref name="Witt" /> The three co-founders discussed a vision of the future which was so compelling that Huang decided to leave LSI<ref name="fortune-interview-2017" /> and become the chief executive officer of their new startup.<ref name="Witt" />

In 1993, the three co-founders envisioned  graphics-based processing as the best trajectory for tackling challenges that had eluded general-purpose computing methods.<ref name="fortune-interview-2017" /> As Huang later explained: "We also observed that video games were simultaneously one of the most computationally challenging problems and would have incredibly high sales volume. Those two conditions don’t happen very often. Video games was our [[killer app]] — a flywheel to reach large markets funding huge R&D to solve massive computational problems."<ref name="fortune-interview-2017" /> With $40,000 in the bank, the company was born.<ref name="fortune-interview-2017" /> The company subsequently received $20 million of venture capital funding from [[Sequoia Capital]], [[Sutter Hill Ventures]] and others.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Williams |first=Elisa |date=April 15, 2002 |title=Crying wolf |url=https://www.forbes.com/global/2002/0415/032.html |access-date=February 11, 2017 |website=[[Forbes]] |quote=Huang, a chip designer at AMD and LSI Logic, co-founded the company in 1993 with $20 million from Sequoia Capital and others. |archive-date=November 29, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129211130/https://www.forbes.com/global/2002/0415/032.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

During the late 1990s, Nvidia was one of 70 startup companies pursuing the idea that graphics acceleration for video games was the path to the future.<ref name="Tilley" />  Only two survived: Nvidia and [[ATI Technologies]], the latter of which merged into AMD.<ref name="Tilley" />

Nvidia initially had no name and the co-founders named all their files NV, as in "next version".<ref name="fortune-interview-2017" /> The need to incorporate the company prompted the co-founders to review all words with those two letters.<ref name="fortune-interview-2017" />  At one point, Malachowsky and Priem wanted to call the company NVision, but that name was already taken by a manufacturer of toilet paper.<ref name="Witt" /> Huang suggested the name Nvidia,<ref name="Witt" /> from "[[invidia]]", the Latin word for "envy".<ref name="fortune-interview-2017" /> The company's original headquarters office was in [[Sunnyvale, California]].<ref name="fortune-interview-2017" />

=== First graphics accelerator ===
Nvidia's first graphics accelerator, the [[NV1]], was designed to process [[quadrilateral]] [[Geometric primitive|primitives]] ([[forward texture mapping]]), a feature that set it apart from competitors, who preferred triangle primitives.<ref name="Witt" /> However, when [[Microsoft]] introduced the [[DirectX]] platform, it chose not to support any other graphics software and announced that its [[Direct3D]] API would exclusively support triangles.<ref name="Witt" /><ref name="Peddie">{{cite news |last1=Peddie |first1=Jon |date=September 23, 2019 |title=Nvidia's RIVA 128 |url=https://www.electronicdesign.com/technologies/embedded/article/21131077/jon-peddie-research-nvidias-riva-128 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240119155034/https://www.electronicdesign.com/technologies/embedded/article/21131077/jon-peddie-research-nvidias-riva-128 |archive-date=January 19, 2024 |access-date=December 5, 2023 |work=Electronic Design}}</ref> As a result, the NV1 failed to gain traction in the market.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kim |first=Tae |title=The Nvidia Way: Jensen Huang and the Making of a Tech Giant |date=2024 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company, Incorporated |isbn=978-1-324-08672-7 |edition=1st |location=}}</ref>

Nvidia had also entered into a partnership with [[Sega]] to supply the graphics chip for the [[Dreamcast]] console and worked on the project for about a year. However, Nvidia's technology was already lagging behind competitors. This placed the company in a difficult position: continue working on a chip that was likely doomed to fail or abandon the project, risking financial collapse.<ref name="wsj cohen 2024">{{Cite news |last=Cohen |first=Ben |date=May 18, 2024 |title=The 84-Year-Old Man Who Saved Nvidia |url=https://www.wsj.com/business/nvidia-stock-jensen-huang-sega-irimajiri-chips-ai-906247db |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240518101129/https://www.wsj.com/business/nvidia-stock-jensen-huang-sega-irimajiri-chips-ai-906247db |archive-date=May 18, 2024 |work=The Wall Street Journal}}</ref>

In a pivotal moment, Sega's president, [[Shoichiro Irimajiri]], visited Huang in person to inform him that Sega had decided to choose another vendor for the Dreamcast. However, Irimajiri believed in Nvidia's potential and persuaded Sega’s management to invest $5 million into the company. Huang later reflected that this funding was all that kept Nvidia afloat, and that Irimajiri's "understanding and generosity gave us six months to live".<ref name="wsj cohen 2024" />

In 1996, Huang laid off more than half of Nvidia's employees—thereby reducing headcount from 100 to 40—and focused the company's remaining resources on developing a graphics accelerator product optimized for processing triangle primitives: the [[RIVA 128]].<ref name="Witt" /><ref name="Peddie" />  By the time the RIVA 128 was released in August 1997, Nvidia had only enough money left for one month’s payroll.<ref name="Witt" /> The sense of impending failure became so pervasive that it gave rise to Nvidia's unofficial company motto: "Our company is thirty days from going out of business."<ref name="Witt" /> Huang began internal presentations to Nvidia staff with those words for many years.<ref name="Witt" />

Nvidia sold about a million RIVA 128 units within four months,<ref name="Witt" /> and used the revenue to fund development of its next generation of products.<ref name="Peddie" /> In 1998, the release of the [[RIVA TNT]] helped solidify Nvidia’s reputation as a leader in graphics technology.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fulton |first=Kane |date=2015-07-20 |title=19 graphics cards that shaped the future of gaming |url=https://www.techradar.com/news/gaming/19-graphics-cards-that-shaped-the-future-of-gaming-1289666 |access-date=2024-09-03 |website=TechRadar |language=en}}</ref>

=== Public company ===
Nvidia went public on January 22, 1999.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Feinstein |first=Ken |date=January 22, 1999 |title=Nvidia Goes Public |url=http://gamecenter.com/News/Item/0,3,0-2433,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19991012205847/http://gamecenter.com/News/Item/0,3,0-2433,00.html |archive-date=October 12, 1999 |access-date=July 13, 2019 |website=gamecenter.co}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Takahashi |first=Dean |date=January 25, 1999 |title=Shares of Nvidia Surge 64% After Initial Public Offering |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB917224371262043000 |url-access=subscription |access-date=July 13, 2019 |newspaper=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |archive-date=April 5, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405073139/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB917224371262043000 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=January 22, 1999 |title=NVIDIA Corporation Announces Initial Public Offering of 3,500,000 Shares of Common Stock |url=https://www.nvidia.com/object/IO_20020108_6739.html |access-date=July 13, 2019 |website=nvidia.com |archive-date=July 13, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190713074208/https://www.nvidia.com/object/IO_20020108_6739.html |url-status=live}}</ref>  Investing in Nvidia after it had already failed to deliver on its contract turned out to be Irimajiri's best decision as Sega's president. After Irimajiri left Sega in 2000, Sega sold its Nvidia stock for $15 million.<ref name="wsj cohen 2024" />

In late 1999, Nvidia released the [[GeForce 256]] (NV10), its first product expressly marketed as a GPU, which was most notable for introducing onboard [[Transform, clipping, and lighting|transformation and lighting]] (T&L) to consumer-level 3D hardware. Running at 120&nbsp;MHz and featuring four-pixel pipelines, it implemented advanced video acceleration, motion compensation, and hardware sub-picture alpha blending. The GeForce outperformed existing products by a wide margin.

Due to the success of its products, Nvidia won the contract to develop the graphics hardware for [[Microsoft]]'s [[Xbox (console)|Xbox]] game console, which earned Nvidia a $200 million advance. However, the project took many of its best engineers away from other projects. In the short term this did not matter, and the [[GeForce 2 Series|GeForce2 GTS]] shipped in the summer of 2000. In December 2000, Nvidia reached an agreement to acquire the intellectual assets of its one-time rival [[3dfx Interactive|3dfx]], a pioneer in consumer 3D graphics technology leading the field from the mid-1990s until 2000.<ref>{{Cite press release |title=NVIDIA to Acquire 3dfx Core Graphics Assets |date=December 15, 2000 |location=Santa Clara, CA |url=https://www.nvidia.com/object/IO_20010612_6602.html |last1=Perez |first1=Derek |last2=Hara |first2=Michael |access-date=January 23, 2017 |archive-date=March 30, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330171444/https://www.nvidia.com/object/IO_20010612_6602.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite press release |title=3dfx Announces Three Major Initiatives To Protect Creditors and Maximize Shareholder Value |date=December 15, 2000 |location=San Jose, CA |url=http://3dfx.com/rel-15dec_2.htm |quote=Board of Directors Initiates Cost-Cutting Measures, Recommends to Shareholders Sale of Company Assets to NVIDIA Corporation for $112 million and Dissolution of Company |last1=Leupp |first1=Alex |last2=Sellers |first2=Scott |access-date=January 23, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010205193000/http://3dfx.com/rel-15dec_2.htm |archive-date=February 5, 2001 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The acquisition process was finalized in April 2002.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kanellos |first=Michael |date=April 11, 2002 |title=Nvidia buys out 3dfx graphics chip business |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/nvidia-buys-out-3dfx-graphics-chip-business/ |access-date=January 23, 2017 |website=[[CNET]] |archive-date=January 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119063532/https://www.cnet.com/news/nvidia-buys-out-3dfx-graphics-chip-business/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2001, [[S&P Global Ratings|Standard & Poor's]] selected Nvidia to replace the departing [[Enron]] in the S&P 500 stock index, meaning that index funds would need to hold Nvidia shares going forward.<ref name="Popina">{{cite news |last1=Popina |first1=Elena |last2=Menton |first2=Jess |title=Nvidia Is the Latest Shiny Object to Spur Stocks to New Heights |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-03-06/nvidia-ai-stocks-are-latest-trend-to-send-s-p-500-to-new-highs |access-date=March 6, 2024 |work=Bloomberg Businessweek |date=March 6, 2024 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=March 6, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240306100548/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-03-06/nvidia-ai-stocks-are-latest-trend-to-send-s-p-500-to-new-highs |url-status=live}}</ref>

In July 2002, Nvidia acquired Exluna for an undisclosed sum. Exluna made software-rendering tools and the personnel were merged into the Cg project.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Becker |first=David |title=Nvidia buys out Exluna |url=http://news.cnet.com/Nvidia-buys-software-company/2100-1040_3-945553.html |access-date=November 9, 2010 |publisher=News.cnet.com |archive-date=October 17, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017134328/http://news.cnet.com/Nvidia-buys-software-company/2100-1040_3-945553.html |url-status=live}}</ref> In August 2003, Nvidia acquired MediaQ for approximately US$70 million.<ref>{{Cite web |date=August 21, 2003 |title=NVIDIA Completes Purchase of MediaQ |url=http://www.mediaq.com/page/home.html |access-date=August 21, 2016 |website=Press Release |publisher=NVIDIA Corporation |archive-date=January 9, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109223435/http://www.mediaq.com/page/home.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> It launched [[GoForce]] the follow year. On April 22, 2004, Nvidia acquired iReady, also a provider of high-performance [[TCP offload engine]]s and [[iSCSI]] controllers.<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 22, 2004 |title=NVIDIA Announces Acquisition of iReady |url=https://www.nvidia.com/object/IO_12881.html |access-date=August 21, 2016 |website=Press Release |publisher=NVIDIA Corporation |archive-date=December 31, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171231211950/https://www.nvidia.com/object/IO_12881.html |url-status=live}}</ref> In December 2004, it was announced that Nvidia would assist [[Sony]] with the design of the graphics processor ([[RSX 'Reality Synthesizer'|RSX]]) for the [[PlayStation 3]] game console. On December 14, 2005, Nvidia acquired [[Acer Laboratories Incorporated|ULI Electronics]], which at the time supplied third-party [[Southbridge (computing)|southbridge]] parts for [[chipset]]s to [[ATI Technologies|ATI]], Nvidia's competitor.<ref>{{Cite web |last=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=December 14, 2005 |title=NVIDIA to Acquire ULi Electronics, a Leading Developer of Core Logic Technology |url=https://www.nvidia.com/object/IO_28250.html |access-date=August 21, 2016 |website=Press Release |publisher=NVIDIA Corporation |archive-date=June 2, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190602092801/https://www.nvidia.com/object/IO_28250.html |url-status=live}}</ref> In March 2006, Nvidia acquired [[Hybrid Graphics]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Smith |first=Tony |date=March 22, 2006 |title=Nvidia acquires Hybrid Graphics – Middleware purchase |url=http://www.reghardware.com/2006/03/22/nvidia_buys_hybrid/ |access-date=August 21, 2016 |website=Hardware |publisher=[[The Register]] |archive-date=January 16, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116072844/http://www.reghardware.com/2006/03/22/nvidia_buys_hybrid/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> In December 2006, Nvidia, along with its main rival in the graphics industry AMD (which had acquired ATI), received subpoenas from the U.S. Department of Justice regarding possible antitrust violations in the graphics card industry.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Krazit |first1=Tom |last2=McCarthy |first2=Caroline |date=December 1, 2006 |title=Justice Dept. subpoenas AMD, Nvidia |url=http://news.zdnet.com/2100-9584_22-6140041.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061208175421/http://news.zdnet.com/2100-9584_22-6140041.html |archive-date=December 8, 2006 |website=New York Times}}</ref>

=== 2007–2014 ===
''[[Forbes]]'' named Nvidia its ''Company of the Year'' for 2007, citing the accomplishments it made during the said period as well as during the previous five years.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Brian Caulfield |date=January 7, 2008 |title=Shoot to Kill |work=Forbes |url=https://www.forbes.com/forbes/2008/0107/092.html |access-date=December 26, 2007 |archive-date=September 18, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180918231637/https://www.forbes.com/forbes/2008/0107/092.html |url-status=live}}</ref> On January 5, 2007, Nvidia announced that it had completed the acquisition of [[PortalPlayer, Inc.]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=January 5, 2007 |title=Nvidia acquires PortalPlayer |url=https://www.nvidia.com/object/portalplayer_acquisition.html |access-date=August 21, 2016 |website=Press Release |publisher=NVIDIA Corporation |archive-date=June 30, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630133005/http://www.nvidia.com/object/portalplayer_acquisition.html |url-status=live}}</ref> In February 2008, Nvidia acquired [[Ageia]], developer of [[PhysX]], a [[physics engine]] and [[physics processing unit]]. Nvidia announced that it planned to integrate the PhysX technology into its future [[Graphics processing unit|GPU]] products.<ref name="cnet-nvidiaphysx">{{Cite web |title=Nvidia to acquire Ageia for the PhysX chip |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/nvidia-to-acquire-ageia-for-the-physx-chip/ |access-date=May 26, 2017 |website=CNET |archive-date=September 18, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180918231037/https://www.cnet.com/news/nvidia-to-acquire-ageia-for-the-physx-chip/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="ars-physxsse">{{Cite web |title=Did NVIDIA cripple its CPU gaming physics library to spite Intel? |url=https://arstechnica.com/gaming/2010/07/did-nvidia-cripple-its-cpu-gaming-physics-library-to-spite-intel/ |access-date=May 26, 2017 |website=Ars Technica |date=July 9, 2010 |archive-date=January 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112015332/https://arstechnica.com/gaming/2010/07/did-nvidia-cripple-its-cpu-gaming-physics-library-to-spite-intel/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

In July 2008, Nvidia took a write-down of approximately $200 million on its first-quarter revenue, after reporting that certain mobile chipsets and GPUs produced by the company had "abnormal failure rates" due to manufacturing defects. Nvidia, however, did not reveal the affected products. In September 2008, Nvidia became the subject of a class action lawsuit over the defects, claiming that the faulty GPUs had been incorporated into certain laptop models manufactured by [[Apple Inc.]], [[Dell]], and [[Hewlett-Packard|HP]]. In September 2010, Nvidia reached a settlement, in which it would reimburse owners of the affected laptops for repairs or, in some cases, replacement.<ref name="pcmag-laptopsettlement">{{Cite web |title=Nvidia GPU Class-Action Settlement Offers Repairs, New Laptops |url=https://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2370032,00.asp |access-date=May 26, 2017 |website=PC Magazine |archive-date=January 10, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190110081429/https://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2370032,00.asp |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="extremetech-nvidiadefect">{{Cite web |title=Update: Nvidia Says Older Mobile GPUs, Chipsets Failing |url=https://www.extremetech.com/extreme/82266-update-nvidia-says-older-mobile-gpus-chipsets-failing |access-date=May 26, 2017 |website=ExtremeTech |date=July 3, 2008 |archive-date=October 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030143138/https://www.extremetech.com/extreme/82266-update-nvidia-says-older-mobile-gpus-chipsets-failing |url-status=live}}</ref> On January 10, 2011, Nvidia signed a six-year, $1.5 billion cross-licensing agreement with Intel, ending all litigation between the two companies.<ref name="engadget-nvintel">{{Cite web |title=Intel agrees to pay NVIDIA $1.5b in patent license fees, signs cross-license |url=https://www.engadget.com/2011/01/10/intel-agrees-to-pay-nvidia-1-5b-in-patent-license-fees-signs-c/ |access-date=May 26, 2017 |website=Engadget |date=January 10, 2011 |archive-date=December 17, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217220145/https://www.engadget.com/2011/01/10/intel-agrees-to-pay-nvidia-1-5b-in-patent-license-fees-signs-c/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

In November 2011, after initially unveiling it at [[Mobile World Congress]], Nvidia released its [[ARM architecture family|ARM]]-based [[system-on-chip|system on a chip]] for mobile devices, [[Tegra 3]]. Nvidia claimed that the chip featured the first-ever quad-core mobile CPU.<ref name="tr-tegra3">{{Cite web |title=Nvidia Tegra 3: what you need to know |url=http://www.techradar.com/news/mobile-computing/nvidia-tegra-3-what-you-need-to-know-1039584 |access-date=May 26, 2017 |website=Techradar |date=November 9, 2011 |archive-date=December 4, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204225157/https://www.techradar.com/news/mobile-computing/nvidia-tegra-3-what-you-need-to-know-1039584 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |title=Nvidia Quad Core Mobile Processors Coming in August |url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/219768/nvidia_quad_core_mobile_processors_coming_in_august.html |magazine=PC World |access-date=February 15, 2011 |archive-date=July 29, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729190458/http://www.pcworld.com/article/219768/nvidia_quad_Core_mobile_processors_coming_in_august.html |url-status=live}}</ref> In May 2011, it was announced that Nvidia had agreed to acquire [[Icera]], a baseband chip making company in the UK, for $367 million.<ref>{{Cite news |date=May 9, 2011 |title=Cambridge coup as Icera goes to Nvidia for £225m |publisher=Business Weekly |url=http://www.businessweekly.co.uk/hi-tech/11782-cambridge-coup-as-icera-goes-to-nvidia-for-p225m |access-date=May 10, 2011 |archive-date=January 12, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150112153522/http://www.businessweekly.co.uk/hi-tech/11782-cambridge-coup-as-icera-goes-to-nvidia-for-p225m |url-status=dead}}</ref> In January 2013, Nvidia unveiled the [[Tegra 4]], as well as the [[Shield Portable|Nvidia Shield]], an [[Android (operating system)|Android]]-based [[handheld game console]] powered by the new system on a chip.<ref name="verge-shieldunveil">{{Cite web |title=Nvidia announces Project Shield handheld gaming system with 5-inch multitouch display, available in Q2 of this year |url=https://www.theverge.com/2013/1/7/3845282/nvidia-announces-project-shield-handheld-gaming-system |access-date=May 26, 2017 |website=The Verge |date=January 7, 2013 |archive-date=December 19, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201219055620/https://www.theverge.com/2013/1/7/3845282/nvidia-announces-project-shield-handheld-gaming-system |url-status=live}}</ref> On July 29, 2013, Nvidia announced that they acquired [[The Portland Group|PGI]] from STMicroelectronics.<ref>{{Cite news |date=July 29, 2013 |title=NVIDIA Pushes Further into HPC With Portland Group Acquisition – insideHPC |language=en-US |work=insideHPC |url=https://insidehpc.com/2013/07/nvidia-acquires-the-portland-group-to-double-down-on-hpc/ |access-date=August 25, 2017 |archive-date=October 22, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022151805/https://insidehpc.com/2013/07/nvidia-acquires-the-portland-group-to-double-down-on-hpc/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

In February 2013, Nvidia announced its plans to build a new headquarters in the form of two giant triangle-shaped buildings on the other side of San Tomas Expressway (to the west of its existing headquarters complex). The company selected triangles as its design theme. As Huang explained in a blog post, the triangle is "the fundamental building block of computer graphics".<ref name="McMillan">{{cite magazine |last1=McMillan |first1=Robert |title=Nvidia Answers Apple Spaceship With Triangle Temple |url=https://www.wired.com/2013/02/nvidia-hq/ |access-date=February 24, 2024 |magazine=Wired |date=February 20, 2013 |archive-date=February 23, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223182712/https://www.wired.com/2013/02/nvidia-hq/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2014, Nvidia ported the [[Valve Corporation|Valve]] games ''[[Portal (video game)|Portal]]'' and ''[[Half-Life 2|Half Life 2]]'' to its [[Nvidia Shield Tablet|Nvidia Shield tablet]] as Lightspeed Studio.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Machkovech |first=Sam |date=May 12, 2014 |title=Half-Life 2, Portal see first-ever Android ports on Nvidia Shield |url=https://arstechnica.com/gaming/2014/05/half-life-2-portal-see-first-ever-android-ports-on-nvidia-shield/ |access-date=July 8, 2022 |website=Ars Technica |language=en-us |archive-date=July 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708142058/https://arstechnica.com/gaming/2014/05/half-life-2-portal-see-first-ever-android-ports-on-nvidia-shield/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=June 12, 2021 |title=Nvidia CEO Jensen Huang weighs in on the metaverse, blockchain, and chip shortage |url=https://venturebeat.com/2021/06/12/nvidia-ceo-jensen-huang-weighs-in-on-the-metaverse-blockchain-chip-shortage-arm-deal-and-competition/ |access-date=July 8, 2022 |website=VentureBeat |language=en-US |archive-date=July 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708142058/https://venturebeat.com/2021/06/12/nvidia-ceo-jensen-huang-weighs-in-on-the-metaverse-blockchain-chip-shortage-arm-deal-and-competition/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Since 2014, Nvidia has diversified its business focusing on three markets: gaming, automotive electronics, and mobile devices.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Team |first=Trefis |date=December 31, 2014 |title=Nvidia's Performance In 2014: Factors That Are Driving Growth |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/greatspeculations/2014/12/31/nvidias-performance-in-2014-factors-that-are-driving-growth/ |access-date=October 7, 2020 |website=Forbes |language=en |archive-date=September 20, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150920182711/http://www.forbes.com/sites/greatspeculations/2014/12/31/nvidias-performance-in-2014-factors-that-are-driving-growth/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

That same year, Nvidia also prevailed in litigation brought by the trustee of 3dfx's bankruptcy estate to challenge its 2000 acquisition of 3dfx's intellectual assets. On November 6, 2014, in an unpublished memorandum order, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit affirmed the "district court's judgment affirming the bankruptcy court's determination that [Nvidia] did not pay less than fair market value for assets purchased from 3dfx shortly before 3dfx filed for bankruptcy".<ref>[https://casetext.com/case/brandt-v-nvidia-corp-in-re-3dfx-interactive ''In re 3dfx Interactive, Inc.''], 585 F. App'x 626 (9th Cir. 2014).</ref>

=== 2016–2018 ===
On May 6, 2016, Nvidia unveiled the first GPUs of the [[GeForce 10 series]], the GTX 1080 and 1070, based on the company's new [[Pascal microarchitecture|Pascal]] microarchitecture. Nvidia claimed that both models outperformed its [[Maxwell (microarchitecture)|Maxwell]]-based Titan X model; the models incorporate GDDR5X and [[GDDR5]] memory respectively, and use a 16&nbsp;nm manufacturing process. The architecture also supports a new hardware feature known as simultaneous multi-projection (SMP), which is designed to improve the quality of multi-monitor and [[virtual reality]] rendering.<ref name="verge-1080unveil">{{Cite web |title=Nvidia's new graphics cards are a big deal |url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2016/5/7/11615806/nvidia-gtx-1080-1070-pascal-specs-price-release-date |access-date=May 26, 2017 |website=The Verge |date=May 7, 2016 |archive-date=November 8, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108111404/http://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2016/5/7/11615806/nvidia-gtx-1080-1070-pascal-specs-price-release-date |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mark Walton |date=May 7, 2016 |title=Nvidia's GTX 1080 and GTX 1070 revealed: Faster than Titan X at half the price |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2016/05/nvidia-gtx-1080-1070-pascal-specs-pricing-revealed/ |website=Ars Technica |access-date=June 14, 2017 |archive-date=January 23, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123122332/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2016/05/nvidia-gtx-1080-1070-pascal-specs-pricing-revealed/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Joel Hruska |date=May 10, 2016 |title=Nvidia's Ansel, VR Funhouse apps will enhance screenshots, showcase company's VR technology |url=http://www.extremetech.com/gaming/228100-nvidias-ansel-vr-funhouse-apps-will-enhance-screenshots-showcase-companys-vr-technology |website=ExtremeTech |access-date=May 12, 2016 |archive-date=November 28, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128225929/https://www.extremetech.com/gaming/228100-nvidias-ansel-vr-funhouse-apps-will-enhance-screenshots-showcase-companys-vr-technology |url-status=live}}</ref> Laptops that include these GPUs and are sufficiently thin&nbsp;– as of late 2017, under {{convert|0.8|inch}}&nbsp;– have been designated as meeting Nvidia's "Max-Q" design standard.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Crider |first=Michael |date=October 5, 2017 |title=What Are NVIDIA MAX-Q Laptops? |url=https://www.howtogeek.com/327019/what-is-nvidia-max-q/ |access-date=December 18, 2017 |publisher=How-To Geek |archive-date=November 28, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128030447/https://www.howtogeek.com/327019/what-is-nvidia-max-q/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

In July 2016, Nvidia agreed to a settlement for a false advertising lawsuit regarding its [[GTX 970]] model, as the models were unable to use all of their advertised 4&nbsp;GB of VRAM due to limitations brought by the design of its hardware.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Smith |first=Ryan |title=Update: NVIDIA GeForce GTX 970 Settlement Claims Website Now Open |work=Anandtech |publisher=Purch, Inc. |url=http://www.anandtech.com/show/10532/nvidia-gtx-970-settlement-claims |access-date=November 15, 2016 |archive-date=November 12, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112002256/https://www.anandtech.com/show/10532/nvidia-gtx-970-settlement-claims |url-status=live}}</ref> In May 2017, Nvidia announced a partnership with [[Toyota]] which would use Nvidia's [[Drive PX-series]] artificial intelligence platform for its autonomous vehicles.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Alexandria Sage |date=May 10, 2017 |title=Nvidia says Toyota will use its AI technology for self-driving cars |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-nvidia-toyota-self-driving-idUSKBN1862M5 |access-date=July 2, 2017 |archive-date=November 12, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112031928/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-nvidia-toyota-self-driving-idUSKBN1862M5 |url-status=live}}</ref> In July 2017, Nvidia and Chinese search giant [[Baidu]] announced a far-reaching AI partnership that includes cloud computing, autonomous driving, consumer devices, and Baidu's open-source AI framework PaddlePaddle. Baidu unveiled that Nvidia's Drive PX 2 AI will be the foundation of its autonomous-vehicle platform.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.fool.com/investing/2017/07/07/nvidia-and-baidu-join-forces-in-far-reaching-ai-pa.aspx |title=NVIDIA and Baidu Join Forces in Far-Reaching AI Partnership |first=Danny |last=Vena |date=July 7, 2017 |website=The Motley Fool|access-date=July 9, 2017|archive-date=November 27, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127002134/https://www.fool.com/investing/2017/07/07/nvidia-and-baidu-join-forces-in-far-reaching-ai-pa.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref>

Nvidia officially released the Titan V on December 7, 2017.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NVIDIA TITAN V Transforms the PC into AI Supercomputer |url=https://nvidianews.nvidia.com/news/nvidia-titan-v-transforms-the-pc-into-ai-supercomputer |date=December 7, 2017 |website=NVIDIA Newsroom |access-date=December 8, 2017 |archive-date=November 9, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109014017/https://nvidianews.nvidia.com/news/nvidia-titan-v-transforms-the-pc-into-ai-supercomputer |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The World's Most Powerful Graphics Card {{!}} NVIDIA TITAN V |url=https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/titan/titan-v/ |website=NVIDIA |access-date=December 8, 2017 |archive-date=November 12, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112220854/https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/titan/titan-v/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Nvidia officially released the Nvidia Quadro GV100 on March 27, 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://nvidianews.nvidia.com/news |title=News Archive |website=NVIDIA Newsroom|access-date=April 26, 2021|archive-date=April 21, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421043716/https://nvidianews.nvidia.com/news|url-status=live}}</ref> Nvidia officially released the RTX 2080 GPUs on September 27, 2018. In 2018, [[Google]] announced that Nvidia's Tesla P4 graphic cards would be integrated into Google Cloud service's artificial intelligence.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Google Cloud gets support for Nvidia's Tesla P4 inferencing accelerators |date=August 6, 2018 |url=https://techcrunch.com/2018/08/06/google-cloud-gets-support-for-nvidias-tesla-p4-inferencing-accelerators/ |access-date=August 30, 2018 |publisher=Tech Crunch |archive-date=November 28, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128231831/https://techcrunch.com/2018/08/06/google-cloud-gets-support-for-nvidias-tesla-p4-inferencing-accelerators/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

In May 2018, on the Nvidia user forum, a thread was started<ref>May 10, 2018. [https://devtalk.nvidia.com/default/topic/1042520/drivers/-when-will-the-nvidia-web-drivers-be-released-for-macos-mojave-10-14-/ 'When will the Nvidia Web Drivers be released for macOS Mojave 10.14'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210403000809/https://forums.developer.nvidia.com/t/when-will-the-nvidia-web-drivers-be-released-for-macos-mojave-10-14/65895 |date=April 3, 2021 }}. Nvidia</ref> asking the company to update users when they would release web drivers for its cards installed on legacy [[Mac Pro]] machines up to [[Mac Pro#1st generation (tower)|mid-2012 5,1]] running the [[macOS Mojave]] operating system 10.14. [[Device driver|Web drivers]] are required to enable graphics acceleration and multiple [[Computer monitor|display monitor]] capabilities of the GPU. On its Mojave update info website, Apple stated that macOS Mojave would run on legacy machines with '[[Metal (API)|Metal compatible]]' graphics cards<ref>[https://www.apple.com/macos/how-to-upgrade/#hardware-requirements Upgrade to macOS Mojave.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160927013442/https://www.apple.com/macos/how-to-upgrade/#hardware-requirements |date=September 27, 2016 }} [[Apple Computer]]</ref> and listed Metal compatible GPUs, including some manufactured by Nvidia.<ref>[https://support.apple.com/en-gb/HT208898#cards Install macOS 10.14 Mojave on Mac Pro (mid 2010) and Mac Pro (mid 2012)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130124240/https://support.apple.com/en-gb/HT208898#cards |date=November 30, 2020 }}. [[Apple Computer]]</ref> However, this list did not include Metal compatible cards that currently work in [[macOS High Sierra]] using Nvidia-developed web drivers. In September, Nvidia responded, "Apple fully controls drivers for macOS. But if Apple allows, our engineers are ready and eager to help Apple deliver great drivers for macOS 10.14 (Mojave)."<ref>September 28, 2018. [https://devtalk.nvidia.com/default/topic/1042279/cuda-setup-and-installation/cuda-10-and-macos-10-14/post/5286813/#5286813 CUDA 10 and macOS 10.14] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123121922/https://forums.developer.nvidia.com/t/cuda-10-and-macos-10-14/65672#5286813 |date=January 23, 2021 }}. Nvidia</ref> In October, Nvidia followed this up with another public announcement, "Apple fully controls drivers for macOS. Unfortunately, Nvidia currently cannot release a driver unless it is approved by Apple,"<ref>October 18, 2018. [https://devtalk.nvidia.com/default/topic/1043070/announcements/faq-about-macos-10-14-mojave-nvidia-drivers/ FAQ about MacOS 10.14 (Mojave) NVIDIA drivers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304172221/https://devtalk.nvidia.com/default/topic/1043070/announcements/faq-about-macos-10-14-mojave-nvidia-drivers/ |date=March 4, 2020 }}</ref> suggesting a possible rift between the two companies.<ref>Florian Maislinger. January 22, 2019. [https://www.pcbuildersclub.com/en/2019/01/apple-and-nvidia-are-said-to-have-a-silent-hostility/ 'Apple and Nvidia are said to have a silent hostility'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200929141524/https://www.pcbuildersclub.com/en/2019/01/apple-and-nvidia-are-said-to-have-a-silent-hostility/ |date=September 29, 2020 }}. PC Builders Club.</ref> By January 2019, with still no sign of the enabling web drivers, [[Apple community#AppleInsider|Apple Insider]] weighed into the controversy with a claim that Apple management "doesn't want Nvidia support in macOS".<ref>William Gallagher and Mike Wuerthele. January 18, 2019. [https://appleinsider.com/articles/19/01/18/apples-management-doesnt-want-nvidia-support-in-macos-and-thats-a-bad-sign-for-the-mac-pro 'Apple's management doesn't want Nvidia support in macOS, and that's a bad sign for the Mac Pro'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112042648/https://appleinsider.com/articles/19/01/18/apples-management-doesnt-want-nvidia-support-in-macos-and-thats-a-bad-sign-for-the-mac-pro/ |date=November 12, 2020 }}</ref> The following month, Apple Insider followed this up with another claim that Nvidia support was abandoned because of "relational issues in the past",<ref>Vadim Yuryev. February 14, 2019. [https://appleinsider.com/articles/19/02/14/video-nvidia-support-was-abandoned-in-macos-mojave-and-heres-why Video: Nvidia support was abandoned in macOS Mojave, and here's why] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114154649/https://appleinsider.com/articles/19/02/14/video-nvidia-support-was-abandoned-in-macos-mojave-and-heres-why |date=January 14, 2021 }}. [[Apple community#AppleInsider|Apple Insider]]</ref> and that Apple was developing its own GPU technology.<ref>Daniel Eran Dilger. April 4, 2017. [https://appleinsider.com/articles/17/04/04/why-apples-new-gpu-efforts-are-a-major-disruptive-threat-to-nvidia 'Why Apple's new GPU efforts are a major disruptive threat to Nvidia'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127092202/https://appleinsider.com/articles/17/04/04/why-apples-new-gpu-efforts-are-a-major-disruptive-threat-to-nvidia |date=November 27, 2020 }}. [[Apple community#AppleInsider|Apple Insider]]</ref> Without Apple-approved Nvidia web drivers, Apple users are faced with replacing their Nvidia cards with a competing supported brand, such as [[AMD Radeon]] from the list recommended by Apple.<ref>[https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT208898 'Install macOS 10.14 Mojave on Mac Pro (mid 2010) and Mac Pro (mid 2012)'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112022658/https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT208898 |date=November 12, 2020 }} [[Apple Inc.]]</ref>

=== 2019 acquisition of Mellanox Technologies ===
{{See also|Mellanox Technologies}}[[File:Nvidia Yokneam Office.jpg|thumb|right|Nvidia Yokneam office (former [[Mellanox Technologies]]) in [[Yokneam Illit]], [[Israel]], March 2023]]
On March 11, 2019, Nvidia announced a deal to buy Mellanox Technologies for $6.9 billion<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 11, 2019 |title=Nvidia to acquire Mellanox Technologies for about $7 billion in cash |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/03/11/nvidia-to-acquire-mellanox-technologies-for-about-7-billion-in-cash.html |access-date=March 11, 2019 |website=www.cnbc.com |archive-date=November 8, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108031917/https://www.cnbc.com/2019/03/11/nvidia-to-acquire-mellanox-technologies-for-about-7-billion-in-cash.html |url-status=live}}</ref> to substantially expand its footprint in the high-performance computing market. In May 2019, Nvidia announced new RTX Studio laptops. The creators say that the new laptop is going to be seven times faster than a top-end MacBook Pro with a [[Core i9]] and AMD's [[Radeon Pro Vega]] 20 graphics in apps like [[Autodesk Maya|Maya]] and RedCine-X Pro.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Byford |first=Sam |date=May 27, 2019 |title=Nvidia announces RTX Studio laptops aimed at creators |url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/5/27/18641152/nvidia-rtx-studio-laptops-creators-software-computex-2019 |access-date=May 27, 2019 |website=The Verge |archive-date=January 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116225311/https://www.theverge.com/2019/5/27/18641152/nvidia-rtx-studio-laptops-creators-software-computex-2019/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In August 2019, Nvidia announced ''[[Minecraft RTX]]'', an official Nvidia-developed patch for the game ''[[Minecraft]]'' adding real-time DXR ray tracing exclusively to the Windows 10 version of the game. The whole game is, in Nvidia's words, "refit" with [[path tracing]], which dramatically affects the way light, reflections, and shadows work inside the engine.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Minecraft with RTX: The World's Best Selling Videogame Is Adding Ray Tracing |url=https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/geforce/news/minecraft-rtx-trailer-screenshots-partnership/ |access-date=April 25, 2020 |website=www.nvidia.com |language=en-us |archive-date=December 13, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201213140636/https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/geforce/news/minecraft-rtx-trailer-screenshots-partnership/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== 2020–2023 ===
In May 2020, Nvidia announced it was acquiring [[Cumulus Networks]].<ref name=Techcrunch>{{cite web |url=https://techcrunch.com/2020/05/04/nvidia-acquires-cumulus-networks/ |title=Nvidia acquires Cumulus Networks |website=Techcrunch |date=May 4, 2020 |accessdate=December 10, 2020|archive-date=December 2, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231202232648/https://techcrunch.com/2020/05/04/nvidia-acquires-cumulus-networks/|url-status=live}}</ref> Post acquisition the company was absorbed into Nvidia's networking business unit, along with [[Mellanox Technologies|Mellanox]].

In May 2020, Nvidia's developed an [[open source|open-source]] [[ventilator]] to address the shortage resulting from the global [[COVID-19 pandemic|coronavirus pandemic]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=NVIDIA's top scientist develops open-source ventilator that can be built with $400 in readily-available parts |url=https://techcrunch.com/2020/05/01/nvidias-top-scientist-develops-open-source-ventilator-that-can-be-built-with-400-in-readily-available-parts/ |access-date=May 1, 2020 |website=TechCrunch |date=May 2020 |language=en-US |archive-date=April 3, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210403000745/https://techcrunch.com/2020/05/01/nvidias-top-scientist-develops-open-source-ventilator-that-can-be-built-with-400-in-readily-available-parts/ |url-status=live}}</ref> On May 14, 2020, Nvidia officially announced their Ampere GPU microarchitecture and the Nvidia A100 GPU accelerator.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://nvidianews.nvidia.com/news/nvidias-new-ampere-data-center-gpu-in-full-production |title=NVIDIA's New Ampere Data Center GPU in Full Production |website=NVIDIA Newsroom|access-date=March 3, 2024|archive-date=March 17, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240317085025/https://nvidianews.nvidia.com/news/nvidias-new-ampere-data-center-gpu-in-full-production|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/data-center/a100/ |title=NVIDIA A100 GPUs Power the Modern Data Center |website=NVIDIA|access-date=May 15, 2020|archive-date=January 16, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116101004/https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/data-center/a100/|url-status=live}}</ref> In July 2020, it was reported that Nvidia was in talks with [[SoftBank Group|SoftBank]] to buy [[Arm (company)|Arm]], a UK-based chip designer, for $32 billion.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Massoudi |first1=Arash |last2=Bradshaw |first2=Tim |last3=Fontanella-Khan |first3=James |date=July 31, 2020 |title=Nvidia in talks to buy Arm from SoftBank for more than $32bn |work=[[Financial Times]] |url=https://www.ft.com/content/4ed67726-1a56-4ce2-9d62-a5ec2a8f35b5 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/4ed67726-1a56-4ce2-9d62-a5ec2a8f35b5 |archive-date=December 10, 2022 |url-access=subscription |access-date=July 3, 2020}}</ref>

On September 1, 2020, Nvidia officially announced the [[GeForce 30 series]] based on the company's new [[Ampere (microarchitecture)|Ampere]] microarchitecture.<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://nvidianews.nvidia.com/news/nvidia-delivers-greatest-ever-generational-leap-in-performance-with-geforce-rtx-30-series-gpus |title=NVIDIA Delivers Greatest-Ever Generational Leap with GeForce RTX 30 Series GPUs |publisher=NVIDIA |date=September 1, 2020 |access-date=August 5, 2021 |archive-date=March 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307043052/https://nvidianews.nvidia.com/news/nvidia-delivers-greatest-ever-generational-leap-in-performance-with-geforce-rtx-30-series-gpus |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/geforce/news/introducing-rtx-30-series-graphics-cards/ |title=GeForce RTX 30 Series Graphics Cards: The Ultimate Play |publisher=NVIDIA |date=September 1, 2020 |access-date=August 5, 2021 |archive-date=January 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119111623/https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/geforce/news/introducing-rtx-30-series-graphics-cards/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

On September 13, 2020, Nvidia announced that they would buy Arm from SoftBank Group for $40 billion, subject to the usual scrutiny, with the latter retaining a 10% share of Nvidia.<ref name="Arm acquired">{{Cite web |last=Moorhead |first=Patrick |title=It's Official- NVIDIA Acquires Arm For $40B To Create What Could Be A Computing Juggernaut |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/patrickmoorhead/2020/09/13/its-officialnvidia-acquires-arm-for-40b-to-create-what-could-be-a-computing-juggernaut/ |access-date=September 14, 2020 |website=Forbes |language=en |archive-date=February 3, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203191926/https://www.forbes.com/sites/patrickmoorhead/2020/09/13/its-officialnvidia-acquires-arm-for-40b-to-create-what-could-be-a-computing-juggernaut/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="NVIDIA bought">{{Cite news |last=Rosoff |first=Matt |date=September 13, 2020 |title=Nvidia to buy Arm Holdings from SoftBank for $40 billion |work=CNBC |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/09/14/nvidia-to-buy-arm-holdings-from-softbank-for-40-billion.html |access-date=September 13, 2020 |archive-date=January 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116110046/https://www.cnbc.com/2020/09/14/nvidia-to-buy-arm-holdings-from-softbank-for-40-billion.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Arash Massoudi |last2=Robert Smith |last3=James Fontanella-Khan |date=September 12, 2020 |title=SoftBank set to sell UK's Arm Holdings to Nvidia for $40bn |work=[[Financial Times]] |url=https://www.ft.com/content/6bfe40a5-2426-4743-98cd-6fed9dd01b98 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/6bfe40a5-2426-4743-98cd-6fed9dd01b98 |archive-date=December 10, 2022 |url-access=subscription |access-date=September 12, 2020}}</ref><ref name="NVIDIA to Acquire Arm">{{cite press release |url=https://nvidianews.nvidia.com/news/nvidia-to-acquire-arm-for-40-billion-creating-worlds-premier-computing-company-for-the-age-of-ai |title=NVIDIA to Acquire Arm for $40 Billion, Creating World's Premier Computing Company for the Age of AI |date=September 13, 2020 |access-date=November 21, 2020 |website=NVIDIA |language=en |archive-date=September 14, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200914001340/https://nvidianews.nvidia.com/news/nvidia-to-acquire-arm-for-40-billion-creating-worlds-premier-computing-company-for-the-age-of-ai |url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Neuer Testbericht der RTX 2080 (Ti) (极客湾Geekerwan) 15.png|thumb|Nvidia GeForce RTX 2080 Ti, part of the [[RTX 20 series]], which is the first generation of [[Nvidia RTX]]]]
In October 2020, Nvidia announced its plan to build the most powerful computer in [[Cambridge]], England. The computer, called Cambridge-1, launched in July 2021 with a $100 million investment and will employ AI to support [[Medical open network for AI|healthcare research]].<ref>{{cite web |title=NVIDIA Launches UK's Most Powerful Supercomputer, for Research in AI and Healthcare |url=https://nvidianews.nvidia.com/news/nvidia-launches-uks-most-powerful-supercomputer-for-research-in-ai-and-healthcare |website=nvidia.com |access-date=December 20, 2023 |archive-date=December 20, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231220145313/https://nvidianews.nvidia.com/news/nvidia-launches-uks-most-powerful-supercomputer-for-research-in-ai-and-healthcare |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Grover |first1=Natalie |title=UK supercomputer Cambridge-1 to hunt for medical breakthroughs |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2021/jul/07/uk-supercomputer-cambridge-1-to-hunt-for-medical-breakthroughs |website=[[The Guardian]] |date=July 6, 2021 |access-date=December 20, 2023 |archive-date=December 20, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231220145311/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2021/jul/07/uk-supercomputer-cambridge-1-to-hunt-for-medical-breakthroughs |url-status=live}}</ref> According to Jensen Huang, "The Cambridge-1 supercomputer will serve as a hub of innovation for the UK, and further the groundbreaking work being done by the nation's researchers in critical healthcare and drug discovery."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sam Shead |date=October 5, 2020 |title=Nvidia pledges to build Britain's largest supercomputer following $40 billion bid for Arm |work=CNBC |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/10/05/nvidia-pledges-to-build-britains-largest-supercomputer.html |access-date=October 5, 2020 |archive-date=January 17, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117113400/https://www.cnbc.com/2020/10/05/nvidia-pledges-to-build-britains-largest-supercomputer.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

Also in October 2020, along with the release of the [[Nvidia RTX]] A6000, Nvidia announced it is retiring its workstation GPU brand Quadro, shifting its product name to Nvidia RTX for future products and the manufacturing to be [[Ampere (microarchitecture)|Nvidia Ampere architecture]]-based.<ref name="Smith" />

In August 2021, the proposed takeover of Arm was stalled after the UK's [[Competition and Markets Authority]] raised "significant competition concerns".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Browne |first=Ryan |date=August 20, 2021 |title=Nvidia's $40 billion Arm takeover warrants an in-depth competition probe, UK regulator says |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/08/20/nvidia-arm-deal-warrants-in-depth-competition-probe-uk-regulator-says.html|access-date=August 20, 2021 |website=CNBC |language=en|archive-date=August 20, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210820152448/https://www.cnbc.com/2021/08/20/nvidia-arm-deal-warrants-in-depth-competition-probe-uk-regulator-says.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In October 2021, the [[European Commission]] opened a competition investigation into the takeover. The Commission stated that Nvidia's acquisition could restrict competitors' access to Arm's products and provide Nvidia with too much internal information on its competitors due to their deals with Arm. SoftBank (the parent company of Arm) and Nvidia announced in early February 2022 that they "had agreed not to move forward with the transaction 'because of significant regulatory challenges'".<ref name="wsj 20220208">{{cite web |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/nvidia-softbank-call-off-blockbuster-arm-deal-11644297283 |title=Nvidia, SoftBank Call Off Blockbuster Arm Deal |date=February 8, 2022 |first=Robert |last=Wall |publisher=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |access-date=February 8, 2022 |archive-date=February 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220208212810/https://www.wsj.com/articles/nvidia-softbank-call-off-blockbuster-arm-deal-11644297283 |url-status=live}}</ref> The investigation is set to end on March 15, 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Porter |first1=Jon |last2=Clark |first2=Mitchell |date=October 27, 2021 |title=EU opens formal investigation into Nvidia's Arm acquisition |url=https://www.theverge.com/2021/10/27/22266504/nvidia-arm-deal-eu-formal-investigation-merger |access-date=October 28, 2021 |website=The Verge |language=en |archive-date=October 28, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028130151/https://www.theverge.com/2021/10/27/22266504/nvidia-arm-deal-eu-formal-investigation-merger |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Chee |first=Foo Yun |date=October 27, 2021 |title=Setback for Nvidia's $54 bln ARM bid as EU regulators open probe |url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/setback-nvidias-54-bln-arm-bid-eu-regulators-open-probe-2021-10-27/ |access-date=October 28, 2021 |website=Reuters |language=en |archive-date=October 28, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028130151/https://www.reuters.com/technology/setback-nvidias-54-bln-arm-bid-eu-regulators-open-probe-2021-10-27/ |url-status=live}}</ref> That same month, Nvidia was reportedly compromised by a cyberattack.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Titcomb |first=James |date=February 25, 2022 |title=US microchip powerhouse Nvidia hit by cyber attack |language=en-GB |work=The Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2022/02/25/us-microchip-powerhouse-nvidia-hit-cyber-attack/ |access-date=February 25, 2022 |issn=0307-1235 |archive-date=February 25, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220225191134/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2022/02/25/us-microchip-powerhouse-nvidia-hit-cyber-attack/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

In March 2022, Nvidia's CEO Jensen Huang mentioned that they are open to having Intel manufacture their chips in the future.<ref>{{Cite news |date=February 24, 2022 |title=Nvidia Considering Intel as a Foundry to Manufacture its GPUs |language=en-GB |url=https://gamingindustry247.com/nvidia-considering-intel-as-a-foundry-to-manufacture-its-gpus/ |access-date=February 24, 2022 |archive-date=August 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809132902/https://gamingindustry247.com/nvidia-considering-intel-as-a-foundry-to-manufacture-its-gpus/ |url-status=live}}</ref> This was the first time the company mentioned that they would work together with Intel's upcoming foundry services.

In April 2022, it was reported that Nvidia planned to open a new research center in [[Yerevan, Armenia]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Tech Giant NVIDIA to Open Research Center in Armenia |url=https://asbarez.com/tech-giant-nvidia-to-open-research-center-in-armenia/ |work=[[Asbarez]] |date=April 7, 2022 |access-date=April 7, 2022 |archive-date=April 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407233902/https://asbarez.com/tech-giant-nvidia-to-open-research-center-in-armenia/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

In May 2022, Nvidia opened Voyager, the second of the two giant buildings at its new headquarters complex to the west of the old one. Unlike its smaller and older sibling Endeavor, the triangle theming is used more "sparingly" in Voyager.<ref name="Shankland">{{cite news |last1=Shankland |first1=Stephen |title=Behold Nvidia's Giant New Voyager Building |url=https://www.cnet.com/pictures/behold-nvidias-giant-new-voyager-building/ |access-date=February 24, 2024 |work=CNET |date=May 5, 2022 |archive-date=February 24, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240224162056/https://www.cnet.com/pictures/behold-nvidias-giant-new-voyager-building/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Thompson |first1=Polly |title=See inside Nvidia's giant 'Voyager' HQ — a futuristic office where work meets nature |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/nvidia-chipmaker-ai-boom-tech-office-california-2023-11 |access-date=February 24, 2024 |work=Business Insider |date=November 19, 2023 |archive-date=March 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240303033422/https://www.businessinsider.com/nvidia-chipmaker-ai-boom-tech-office-california-2023-11 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In September 2022, Nvidia announced its next-generation automotive-grade chip, [[Nvidia Drive#DRIVE Thor|Drive Thor]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Holt |first=Kris |date=September 20, 2022 |title=NVIDIA reveals its next-gen chipset for autonomous vehicles |url=https://www.engadget.com/nvidia-autonomous-vehicle-chipset-drive-thor-164538911.html |website=[[Engadget]] |access-date=November 8, 2022 |archive-date=November 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221108035725/https://www.engadget.com/nvidia-autonomous-vehicle-chipset-drive-thor-164538911.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite press release |last=CORPORATION |first=NVIDIA |date=September 20, 2022 |title=NVIDIA Unveils DRIVE Thor — Centralized Car Computer Unifying Cluster, Infotainment, Automated Driving, and Parking in a Single, Cost-Saving System |url=https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2022/09/20/2519504/0/en/NVIDIA-Unveils-DRIVE-Thor-Centralized-Car-Computer-Unifying-Cluster-Infotainment-Automated-Driving-and-Parking-in-a-Single-Cost-Saving-System.html |access-date=September 20, 2022 |website=GlobeNewswire News Room |language=en |archive-date=September 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920174224/https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2022/09/20/2519504/0/en/NVIDIA-Unveils-DRIVE-Thor-Centralized-Car-Computer-Unifying-Cluster-Infotainment-Automated-Driving-and-Parking-in-a-Single-Cost-Saving-System.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

In September 2022, Nvidia announced a collaboration with the [[Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard University|Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard]] related to the entire suite of Nvidia's [[Artificial intelligence|AI]]-powered healthcare software suite called Clara, that includes [[NVIDIA Parabricks|Parabricks]] and [[Medical open network for AI|MONAI]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Broad Institute and NVIDIA Bring NVIDIA Clara to Terra Cloud Platform Serving 25,000 Researchers Advancing Biomedical Discovery |url=http://nvidianews.nvidia.com/news/the-broad-institute-and-nvidia-bring-nvidia-clara-to-terra-cloud-platform-serving-25-000-researchers-advancing-biomedical-discovery |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=NVIDIA Newsroom |language=en-us}}</ref> 

Following U.S. Department of Commerce regulations which placed an [[China–United States trade war#Biden administration restrictions|embargo on exports to China]] of advanced microchips, which went into effect in October 2022, Nvidia saw its data center chip added to the export control list. The next month, the company unveiled a new advanced chip in China, called the A800 GPU, that met the export control rules.<ref>{{cite news |last=Lee |first=Jane Lanhee |date=November 7, 2022 |title=Exclusive: Nvidia offers new advanced chip for China that meets U.S. export controls |url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/exclusive-nvidia-offers-new-advanced-chip-china-that-meets-us-export-controls-2022-11-08/ |work=[[Reuters]] |access-date=November 8, 2022 |archive-date=November 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221108035434/https://www.reuters.com/technology/exclusive-nvidia-offers-new-advanced-chip-china-that-meets-us-export-controls-2022-11-08/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

In September 2023, [[Getty Images]] announced that it was partnering with Nvidia to launch Generative AI by Getty Images, a new tool that lets people create images using Getty's library of licensed photos. Getty will use Nvidia's Edify model, which is available on Nvidia's [[generative AI]] model library Picasso.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theverge.com/2023/9/25/23884679/getty-ai-generative-image-platform-launch |author=Emilia David |date=September 25, 2023 |title=Getty made an AI generator that only trained on its licensed images |work=Verge|access-date=September 26, 2023|archive-date=September 26, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230926213950/https://www.theverge.com/2023/9/25/23884679/getty-ai-generative-image-platform-launch|url-status=live}}</ref>

On September 26, 2023, Denny's CEO [[Kelli Valade]] joined Huang in East San Jose to celebrate the founding of Nvidia at Denny's on Berryessa Road, where a plaque was installed to mark the relevant corner booth as the birthplace of a $1 trillion company.<ref name="Witt" /><ref name="Takahashi">{{cite news |last1=Takahashi |first1=Dean |title=Jensen Huang returns to Denny's where trillion-dollar company began |url=https://venturebeat.com/games/jensen-huang-returns-to-dennys-where-trillion-dollar-company-began/ |access-date=September 28, 2023 |work=VentureBeat |date=September 26, 2023 |archive-date=September 28, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230928033322/https://venturebeat.com/games/jensen-huang-returns-to-dennys-where-trillion-dollar-company-began/ |url-status=live}}</ref> By then, Nvidia's [[Hopper (microarchitecture)|H100]] GPUs were in such demand that even other [[tech giant]]s were beholden to how Nvidia allocated supply. [[Larry Ellison]] of [[Oracle Corporation]] said that month that during a dinner with Huang at [[Nobu]] in [[Palo Alto, California|Palo Alto]], he and [[Elon Musk]] of [[Tesla, Inc.]] and [[xAI (company)|xAI]] "were begging" for H100s, "I guess is the best way to describe it. An hour of sushi and begging".<ref name="fitch20240226">{{Cite news |last=Fitch |first=Asa |date=February 26, 2024 |title=Nvidia's Stunning Ascent Has Also Made It a Giant Target |url=https://www.wsj.com/tech/ai/nvidia-ceo-jensen-huang-vision-company-f05db212 |access-date=February 27, 2024 |work=The Wall Street Journal |language=en-US |url-access=subscription |archive-date=February 27, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227063751/https://www.wsj.com/tech/ai/nvidia-ceo-jensen-huang-vision-company-f05db212 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In October 2023, it was reported that Nvidia had quietly begun designing [[ARM architecture family|ARM-based]] central processing units (CPUs) for Microsoft's [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] operating system with a target to start selling them in 2025.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Nellis |first1=Stephen |last2=Cherney |first2=Max A. |date=October 24, 2023 |title=Exclusive: Nvidia to make Arm-based PC chips in major new challenge to Intel |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/nvidia-make-arm-based-pc-chips-major-new-challenge-intel-2023-10-23/ |access-date=October 24, 2023 |archive-date=October 24, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231024130802/https://www.reuters.com/technology/nvidia-make-arm-based-PC-chips-major-new-challenge-intel-2023-10-23/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== 2024–2025 ===
In January 2024, ''[[Forbes]]'' reported that Nvidia has increased its lobbying presence in Washington, D.C. as American lawmakers consider proposals to [[Regulation of artificial intelligence|regulate artificial intelligence]]. From 2023 to 2024, the company reportedly hired at least four government affairs with professional backgrounds at agencies including the United States Department of State and the Department of the Treasury. It was noted that the $350,000 spent by the company on lobbying in 2023 was small compared to a number of major tech companies in the artificial intelligence space.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nieva |first=Richard |date=January 11, 2024 |title=Nvidia Is Quietly Ramping Up For A Delicate Dance In Washington |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/richardnieva/2024/01/11/nvidia-is-quietly-ramping-up-for-a-delicate-dance-in-washington/ |access-date=May 12, 2024 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref>

As of January 2024, [[Raymond James Financial]] analysts estimated that Nvidia was selling the H100 GPU in the price range of $25,000 to $30,000 each, while on [[eBay]], individual H100s cost over $40,000.<ref name="Vanian">{{cite news |last1=Vanian |first1=Jonathan |title=Mark Zuckerberg indicates Meta is spending billions of dollars on Nvidia AI chips |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2024/01/18/mark-zuckerberg-indicates-meta-is-spending-billions-on-nvidia-ai-chips.html |access-date=June 6, 2024 |work=CNBC |date=January 18, 2024}}</ref> Tech giants were purchasing tens or hundreds of thousands of GPUs for their data centers to run [[generative artificial intelligence]] projects; simple arithmetic implied that they were committing to billions of dollars in capital expenditures.<ref name="Vanian" />

In February 2024, it was reported that Nvidia was the "hot employer" in Silicon Valley because it was offering interesting work and good pay at a time when other tech employers were downsizing. Half of Nvidia employees earned over $228,000 in 2023.<ref name="Bindley">{{cite news |last1=Bindley |first1=Katherine |last2=Ellis |first2=Lindsay |last3=Bousquette |first3=Isabelle |title=Booming Stock and Sky-High Pay: Nvidia Is Silicon Valley's Hot Employer |url=https://www.wsj.com/lifestyle/careers/booming-stock-and-sky-high-pay-nvidia-is-silicon-valleys-hot-employer-e4fb6c20 |access-date=February 27, 2024 |work=The Wall Street Journal |date=February 26, 2024 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=February 27, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227001206/https://www.wsj.com/lifestyle/careers/booming-stock-and-sky-high-pay-nvidia-is-silicon-valleys-hot-employer-e4fb6c20 |url-status=live}}</ref> By then, Nvidia GPUs had become so valuable that they needed special security while in transit to data centers. [[Cisco]] chief information officer Fletcher Previn explained at a CIO summit: "Those GPUs arrive by armored car".<ref name="Bousquette">{{cite news |last1=Bousquette |first1=Isabelle |last2=Lin |first2=Belle |title=Armored Cars and Trillion Dollar Price Tags: How Some Tech Leaders Want to Solve the Chip Shortage |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/armored-cars-and-trillion-dollar-price-tags-how-some-tech-leaders-want-to-solve-the-chip-shortage-d7c75039 |access-date=May 30, 2024 |work=The Wall Street Journal |date=February 14, 2024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

On March 1, 2024, Nvidia became the third company in the history of the United States to close with a market capitalization in excess of $2 trillion.<ref name="Popina" /> Nvidia needed only 180 days to get to $2 trillion from $1 trillion, while the first two companies, [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] and Microsoft, each took over 500 days.<ref name="Popina" /> On March 18, Nvidia announced its new AI chip and microarchitecture [[Blackwell (microarchitecture)|Blackwell]], named after mathematician [[David Blackwell]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Weiss |first1=Geoff |title=Nvidia's CEO unveils the next AI chip that tech companies will be scrambling for — meet 'Blackwell' |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/nvidia-ceo-jensen-huang-unveils-next-generation-ai-chip-blackwell-2024-3 |access-date=March 19, 2024 |work=Business Insider |date=March 19, 2024 |archive-date=March 19, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240319001932/https://www.businessinsider.com/nvidia-ceo-jensen-huang-unveils-next-generation-ai-chip-blackwell-2024-3 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In April 2024, Reuters reported that China had allegedly acquired banned Nvidia chips and servers from [[Supermicro]] and Dell via tenders.<ref>{{cite news |last=Baptista |first=Eduardo |date=April 23, 2024 |title=China acquired recently banned Nvidia chips in Super Micro, Dell servers, tenders show |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/china/china-acquired-recently-banned-nvidia-chips-super-micro-dell-servers-tenders-2024-04-23/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240424220448/https://www.reuters.com/world/china/china-acquired-recently-banned-nvidia-chips-super-micro-dell-servers-tenders-2024-04-23/ |archive-date=April 24, 2024 |access-date=April 23, 2024 |work=Reuters |ref=none}}</ref>
[[File:PNY Nvidia Quadro P1000.jpg|thumb|PNY Nvidia Quadro P1000]]
In June 2024, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) and the Justice Department (DOJ) began antitrust investigations into Nvidia, Microsoft and [[OpenAI]], focusing on their influence in the AI industry. The FTC led the investigations into Microsoft and OpenAI, while the DOJ handled Nvidia. The probes centered on the companies' conduct rather than mergers. This development followed an open letter from OpenAI employees expressing concerns about the [[AI boom|rapid AI advancements]] and lack of oversight.<ref>{{cite news |title=U.S. regulators to open antitrust probes into Nvidia, Microsoft and OpenAI |date=June 6, 2024 |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2024/06/06/us-regulators-to-open-antitrust-probes-into-nvidia-microsoft-and-openai.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240609033901/https://www.cnbc.com/2024/06/06/us-regulators-to-open-antitrust-probes-into-nvidia-microsoft-and-openai.html |archive-date=June 9, 2024 |access-date=June 9, 2024}}</ref>

The company became the world's most valuable, surpassing Microsoft and Apple, on June 18, 2024, after its market capitalization exceeded $3.3 trillion.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Patnaik |first1=Subrat |last2=Reinicke |first2=Carmen |title=Nvidia Becomes World's Most Valuable Company as AI Rally Steams Ahead |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-06-18/nvidia-becomes-world-s-largest-firm-as-ai-rally-steams-ahead?srnd=homepage-americas&sref=CIpmV6x8 |access-date=June 18, 2024 |work=Bloomberg |date=June 18, 2024}}</ref><ref name="Prakash">{{cite news |last1=Prakash |first1=Prarthana |title=Nvidia single-handedly surpasses Europe's biggest stock markets as London Stock Exchange chief promises reform to refresh U.K.'s 'ambition' |url=https://fortune.com/europe/2024/06/21/nvidia-surpasses-europes-biggest-stock-markets-london-stock-exchange-reform-u-k-ambition/ |work=Fortune |date=June 21, 2024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

In June 2024, [[Trend Micro]] announced a partnership with Nvidia to develop AI-driven security tools, notably to protect the data centers where AI workloads are processed. This collaboration integrates Nvidia NIM and Nvidia Morpheus with Trend Vision One and its Sovereign and Private Cloud solutions to improve data privacy, real-time analysis, and rapid threat mitigation.<ref>{{Cite web |last=McCann |first=Kristian |date=2024-06-03 |title=How Nvidia's AI Chips will Power Trend Micro's Cybersecurity |url=https://aimagazine.com/articles/how-nvidias-ai-chips-will-power-trend-micros-cybersecurity |access-date=2024-09-19 |website=AI magazine |language=en}}</ref>

Nvidia introduced a family of open-source [[Large language model#Multimodality|multimodal large language models]] in October 2024 called NVLM 1.0, which features a flagship version with 72&nbsp;billion parameters, designed to improve text-only performance after multimodal training.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nunez |first=Michael |date=October 1, 2024 |title=Nvidia just dropped a bombshell: Its new AI model is open, massive, and ready to rival GPT-4 |url=https://venturebeat.com/ai/nvidia-just-dropped-a-bombshell-its-new-ai-model-is-open-massive-and-ready-to-rival-gpt-4/ |website=[[VentureBeat]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Basu |first=Swati |date=October 2, 2024 |title=Nvidia unveils its new NVLM 1.0 AI model, rivaling the likes of OpenAI's GPT-4 |url=https://readwrite.com/nvidia-unveils-nvlm-1-0-ai-model/ |website=[[ReadWrite]]}}</ref>

In November 2024, the company was added to the Dow Jones Industrial Average.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/nvidia-replace-intel-dow-jones-industrial-average-2024-11-01 |title=Nvidia to take Intel's spot on Dow Jones Industrial Average |first=Arsheeya |last=Bajwa |website=[[Reuters]] |date=November 1, 2024 |access-date=November 3, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2024/11/01/nvidia-to-join-dow-jones-industrial-average-replacing-intel.html |title=Nvidia to join Dow Jones Industrial Average, replacing rival chipmaker Intel |work=CNBC |last=Leswing |first=Kif |date=November 1, 2024 |access-date=November 3, 2024}}</ref>

In November 2024, [[Morgan Stanley]] reported that "the entire 2025 production" of all of Nvidia's Blackwell chips was "already sold out".<ref name="Kahn">{{cite news |last1=Kahn |first1=Jeremy |title=60 direct reports, but no 1-on-1 meetings: How an unconventional leadership style helped Jensen Huang of Nvidia become one of the most powerful people in business |url=https://fortune.com/2024/11/12/jensen-huang-nvidia-ceo-leadership-mpp/ |access-date=November 16, 2024 |work=Fortune |date=November 12, 2024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Also in November 2024, the company made an investment in [[Nebius Group]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/nvidia-among-investors-700-mln-capital-raise-by-ai-firm-nebius-group-2024-12-02/ |title=Nvidia among investors in $700 mln capital raise by AI firm Nebius Group | first=Alexander | last=Marrow | work=[[Reuters]] | location=[[London]] | date=December 2, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release | url=https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20241202575315/en/Nebius-Announces-Oversubscribed-Strategic-Equity-Financing-of-USD-700-Million-to-Accelerate-Roll-out-of-Full-stack-AI-Infrastructure | title=Nebius Announces Oversubscribed Strategic Equity Financing of USD 700 Million to Accelerate Roll-out of Full-stack AI Infrastructure | publisher=[[Business Wire]] | date=December 2, 2024}}</ref>

Nvidia was ranked #3 on Forbes' "Best Places to Work" list in 2024.<ref>{{cite web |title=Fortune 100 Best Companies to Work For |url=https://fortune.com/ranking/best-companies/2024/ |website=Fortune |language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250119102931/https://fortune.com/ranking/best-companies/2024/|archive-date=19 January 2025|url-status=live}}</ref>

In January 2025, Nvidia saw the largest one-day loss in market capitalization for a U.S. company in history at $600 billion. This was due to [[DeepSeek]], a Chinese AI startup that developed an advanced AI model at a lower cost and computing power. DeepSeek's AI assistant, using the V3 model, surpassed ChatGPT as the highest-rated free app in the U.S. on [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]'s [[App Store (Apple)|App Store]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Subin|first=Samantha|date=January 27, 2025|title=Nvidia sheds almost $600 billion in market cap, biggest one-day loss in U.S. history|publisher=CNBC|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2025/01/27/nvidia-sheds-almost-600-billion-in-market-cap-biggest-drop-ever.html|access-date=January 28, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Saul |first=Derek |title=Biggest Market Loss In History: Nvidia Stock Sheds Nearly $600 Billion As DeepSeek Shakes AI Darling |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/dereksaul/2025/01/27/biggest-market-loss-in-history-nvidia-stock-sheds-nearly-600-billion-as-deepseek-shakes-ai-darling/ |access-date=2025-01-28 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref>

== Fabless manufacturing ==
Nvidia [[Fabless manufacturing|uses external suppliers for all phases of manufacturing]], including wafer fabrication, assembly, testing, and packaging. Nvidia thus avoids most of the investment and production costs and risks associated with chip manufacturing, although it does sometimes directly procure some components and materials used in the production of its products (e.g., memory and substrates). Nvidia focuses its own resources on product design, quality assurance, marketing, and customer support.<ref>{{cite web |page=8 |title=2023 NVIDIA Corporation Annual Review |publisher=Nvidia |url=https://s201.q4cdn.com/141608511/files/doc_financials/2023/ar/2023-Annual-Report-1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240302063445/https://s201.q4cdn.com/141608511/files/doc_financials/2023/ar/2023-Annual-Report-1.pdf |archive-date=March 2, 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://research-methodology.net/nvidia-value-chain-analysis/ |title=Nvidia Value Chain Analysis |date=June 22, 2023 |website=Research-Methodology|access-date=March 3, 2024|archive-date=March 3, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240303170230/https://research-methodology.net/nvidia-value-chain-analysis/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Corporate affairs ==
{| class="wikitable floatright"
|+Sales by business unit (2023)<ref name=":3" />
!Business unit
!Sales (billion $)
!Share
|-
|Compute & networking
|47.4
|77.8%
|-
|Graphics
|13.5
|22.2%
|}
{| class="wikitable floatright"
|+Sales by region (2023)<ref name=":3" />
!Region
!Sales (billion $)
!Share
|-
|United States
|27.0
|44.3%
|-
|Taiwan
|13.4
|22.0%
|-
|China
|10.3
|16.9%
|-
|Other countries
|10.2
|16.8%
|}

=== Leadership ===
Nvidia's key management as of March 2024 consists of:<ref>{{Cite web |title=NVIDIA Corporation – Governance – Management Team |url=https://investor.nvidia.com/governance/management-team/default.aspx |access-date=March 7, 2024 |website=investor.nvidia.com |archive-date=December 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203235243/https://investor.nvidia.com/governance/management-team/default.aspx |url-status=live}}</ref>

* [[Jensen Huang]], founder, president and chief executive officer
* [[Chris Malachowsky]], founder and Nvidia fellow
* Colette Kress, executive vice president and chief financial officer
* Jay Puri, executive vice president of worldwide field operations
* Debora Shoquist, executive vice president of operations
* Tim Teter, executive vice president, general counsel and secretary

=== Board of directors ===
{{As of |2024|11}}, the company's [[Board of directors|board]] consisted of the following directors:<ref>{{Cite web |title=NVIDIA Corporation – Governance – Board of Directors |url=https://investor.nvidia.com/governance/board-of-directors/default.aspx |access-date=March 7, 2024 |website=investor.nvidia.com |archive-date=December 4, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231204005016/https://investor.nvidia.com/governance/board-of-directors/default.aspx |url-status=live}}</ref>

* [[Rob Burgess]] (former [[chief executive officer]] of Macromedia Inc.)
* Tench Coxe (former managing director of [[Sutter Hill Ventures]])
* [[John Dabiri]] (engineer and professor at the [[California Institute of Technology]])
* [[Persis Drell]] (physicist and professor at [[Stanford University]])
* [[Jensen Huang]] (co-founder, CEO and president of Nvidia)
* Dawn Hudson (former Chief Marketing Officer of the [[National Football League]])
* Harvey C. Jones (managing partner of Square Wave Ventures)
* Melissa B. Lora (former president of [[Taco Bell]] International)
* [[Stephen Neal (lawyer)|Stephen Neal]] (lead independent director of Nvidia, former CEO and Chairman Emeritus and Senior Counsel of [[Cooley LLP]])
* [[Ellen Ochoa]] (former director of [[NASA Johnson Space Center]])
* Brooke Seawell (venture partner at [[New Enterprise Associates]])
* Aarti Shah (former Senior Vice President & Chief Information and Digital Officer at [[Eli Lilly and Company]])
* [[Mark Stevens (venture capitalist)|Mark Stevens]] (managing Partner at S-Cubed Capital)

=== Finances ===
[[File:NVIDIA Stock Price.webp|thumb|upright=1.06|Nvidia stock price (1999–2023)]]
{| class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align: right;"
|+ 10-year financials (2014–2023)
!Year
!Revenue<br />(mil. US$)
!Net income<br />(mil. US$)
!Employees
|-
! scope="row" |2014
|4,682
| 631
|6,384
|-
! scope="row" |2015
|5,010
|614
|9,227
|-
! scope="row" |2016
|6,910
|1,666
|10,299
|-
! scope="row" |2017
|9,714
|3,047
|11,528
|-
! scope="row"|2018
|11,716
|4,141
|13,277
|-
! scope="row"|2019
|10,918
|2,796
|13,775
|-
! scope="row"|2020
|16,675
|4,332
|18,975
|-
! scope="row"|2021
|26,914
|9,752
|22,473
|-
! scope="row"|2022
|26,974
|4,368
|26,000
|-
! scope="row"|2023
|60,922
|29,760
|29,600
|}

For the fiscal year 2020, Nvidia reported earnings of US$2.796 billion, with an annual revenue of US$10.918 billion, a decline of 6.8% over the previous fiscal cycle. Nvidia's shares traded at over $531 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over US$328.7 billion in January 2021. As of late Q3 2024, Nvidia's market cap is around US$2.98 trillion.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.google.com/finance/quote/NVDA | title=Google Finance - Stock Market Prices, Real-time Quotes & Business News }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=NVIDIA Corporation – Financial Info – Annual Reports and Proxies |url=https://investor.nvidia.com/financial-info/annual-reports-and-proxies/default.aspx |access-date=November 18, 2018 |website=investor.nvidia.com |language=en-US |archive-date=January 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114133504/https://investor.nvidia.com/financial-info/annual-reports-and-proxies/default.aspx |url-status=live}}</ref>

For the Q2 of 2020, Nvidia reported sales of $3.87 billion, which was a 50% rise from the same period in 2019. The surge in sales and people's higher demand for computer technology. According to the financial chief of the company, Colette Kress, the effects of the pandemic will "likely reflect this evolution in enterprise workforce trends with a greater focus on technologies, such as Nvidia laptops and virtual workstations, that enable remote work and virtual collaboration."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Armental |first=Maria |date=August 19, 2020 |title=Nvidia Posts Record Sales as Pandemic Sustains Demand for Gaming, Data-Center Chips |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/nvidia-posts-record-sales-as-pandemic-sustains-demand-for-gaming-data-center-chips-11597871110?mod=business_lead_pos13 |access-date=August 20, 2020 |archive-date=August 20, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820183702/https://www.wsj.com/articles/nvidia-posts-record-sales-as-pandemic-sustains-demand-for-gaming-data-center-chips-11597871110?mod=business_lead_pos13 |url-status=live}}</ref> In May 2023, Nvidia crossed $1 trillion in market valuation during trading hours,<ref name="CNBC 5-30-2023">{{cite news |last=Goswami |first=Rohan |date=May 30, 2023 |title=Nvidia crosses into $1 trillion market cap before giving back gains |publisher=CNBC |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2023/05/30/nvidia-on-track-to-hit-1-trillion-market-cap-when-market-opens.html|access-date=May 30, 2023|archive-date=May 30, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230530130905/https://www.cnbc.com/2023/05/30/nvidia-on-track-to-hit-1-trillion-market-cap-when-market-opens.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and grew to $1.2 trillion by the following November.<ref>{{cite news |last=Levy |first=Ari |date=November 20, 2023 |title=Nvidia stock closes at all-time high, a day before earnings |publisher=CNBC |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2023/11/20/nvidia-earnings-report-to-give-investors-peek-into-ai-demand-for-2024.html|access-date=November 20, 2023|archive-date=November 20, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231120211443/https://www.cnbc.com/2023/11/20/nvidia-earnings-report-to-give-investors-peek-into-ai-demand-for-2024.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For its strength, size and market capitalization, Nvidia has been selected to be one of Bloomberg's "[[Big_Tech#Magnificent_Seven|Magnificent Seven]]", the seven biggest companies on the stock market in these regards.

=== Ownership ===
The 10 largest shareholders of Nvidia in early 2024 were:<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=NVIDIA Corporation: Shareholders Board Members Managers and Company Profile {{!}} US67066G1040 {{!}} MarketScreener |url=https://www.marketscreener.com/quote/stock/NVIDIA-CORPORATION-57355629/company/ |access-date=March 7, 2024 |website=www.marketscreener.com |language=en |archive-date=July 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703081612/https://www.marketscreener.com/quote/stock/NVIDIA-CORPORATION-57355629/company/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

* [[The Vanguard Group]] (8.280%)
* [[BlackRock]] (5.623%)
* [[Fidelity Investments]] (5.161%)
* [[State Street Corporation]] (3.711%)
* [[Jensen Huang]] (3.507%)
* [[Geode Capital Management]] (2.024%)
* [[T. Rowe Price]] (2.013%)
* [[JPMorgan Chase]] (1.417%)
* [[BlackRock]] Life (1.409%)
* [[Eaton Vance]] (1.337%)

== GPU Technology Conference ==
{{Main|Nvidia GTC}}
Nvidia's GPU Technology Conference (GTC) is a series of technical conferences held around the world.<ref name="GPU Technology Conference">{{Cite web |title=GPU Technology Conference |url=https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/gtc/ |access-date=September 7, 2021 |website=GPU Technology Conference |language=en-us |archive-date=January 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119132122/https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/gtc/ |url-status=live}}</ref> It originated in 2009 in San Jose, California, with an initial focus on the potential for solving computing challenges through GPUs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Company History {{!}} NVIDIA |url=https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/about-nvidia/corporate-timeline/ |access-date=September 7, 2021 |website=www.nvidia.com |language=en-us |archive-date=March 9, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309012821/https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/about-nvidia/corporate-timeline/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In recent years, the conference's focus has shifted to various applications of artificial intelligence and [[deep learning]]; including [[Autonomous car|self-driving cars]], healthcare, [[High Performance Computing|high-performance computing]], and Nvidia Deep Learning Institute (DLI) training.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Deep Learning and GPU-Programming Workshops at GTC 2021 |url=https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/gtc/training/ |access-date=September 7, 2021 |website=NVIDIA |language=en-us |archive-date=August 27, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210827135127/https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/gtc/training/ |url-status=live}}</ref> GTC 2018 attracted over 8400 attendees.<ref name="GPU Technology Conference" /> GTC 2020 was converted to a digital event and drew roughly 59,000 registrants.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Deep Learning and GPU-Programming Workshops at GTC 2018 |url=https://blogs.nvidia.com/blog/2020/03/02/gtc-san-jose-online-event/ |access-date=March 2, 2020 |website=NVIDIA |date=March 2, 2020 |language=en-us |archive-date=January 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119092200/https://blogs.nvidia.com/blog/2020/03/02/gtc-san-jose-online-event/ |url-status=live}}</ref> After several years of remote-only events, GTC in March 2024 returned to an in-person format in San Jose, California.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Caulfield |first=Brian |date=March 18, 2024 |title='We Created a Processor for the Generative AI Era,' NVIDIA CEO Says |url=https://blogs.nvidia.com/blog/2024-gtc-keynote/ |access-date=March 30, 2024 |website=NVIDIA Blog |language=en-US |archive-date=March 29, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329173311/https://blogs.nvidia.com/blog/2024-gtc-keynote/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Product families ==
[[File:NVIDIA Shield Tablet with Wireless Controller (16131034479).jpg|thumb|A [[Shield Tablet]] with its accompanying input pen (left) and [[gamepad]]]]

Nvidia's product families include graphics processing units, wireless communication devices, and automotive hardware and software, such as:
* [[GeForce]], consumer-oriented graphics processing products
* [[Nvidia RTX|RTX]], professional visual computing graphics processing products (replacing GTX and [[Quadro]])
* [[Nvidia Quadro#For business NVS|NVS]], a multi-display business graphics processor
* [[Tegra]], a [[system on a chip]] series for mobile devices
* [[Nvidia Tesla|Tesla]], line of dedicated general-purpose GPUs for high-end image generation applications in professional and scientific fields
* [[nForce]], a motherboard chipset created by Nvidia for Intel (Celeron, Pentium and Core 2) and AMD (Athlon and Duron) microprocessors
* [[Nvidia GRID|GRID]], a set of hardware and services by Nvidia for graphics virtualization
* Shield, a range of gaming hardware including the [[Shield Portable]], [[Shield Tablet]] and [[Shield TV]]
* [[Nvidia Drive|Drive]], a range of hardware and software products for designers and manufacturers of autonomous vehicles. The [[Drive PX-series]] is a high-performance computer platform aimed at autonomous driving through deep learning,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nvidia automotive solutions |url=https://www.nvidia.com/object/drive-automotive-technology.html |access-date=March 29, 2016 |publisher=Nvidia |archive-date=October 4, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171004130646/http://www.nvidia.com/object/drive-automotive-technology.html |url-status=live}}</ref> while Driveworks is an operating system for [[Self-driving car|driverless cars]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 29, 2016 |title=Nvidia unveils driverless car OS and partnership with TomTom |url=https://eandt.theiet.org/content/articles/2016/09/nvidia-unveils-driverless-car-os-and-partnership-with-tomtom/ |access-date=October 20, 2016 |archive-date=September 18, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180918231227/https://eandt.theiet.org/content/articles/2016/09/nvidia-unveils-driverless-car-os-and-partnership-with-tomtom/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
*[[Nvidia BlueField|BlueField]], a range of [[data processing unit]]s, initially inherited from their acquisition of [[Mellanox Technologies]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=NVIDIA BlueField Data Processing Units |url=https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/networking/products/data-processing-unit/|access-date=May 29, 2021 |website=NVIDIA |language=en-us|archive-date=May 30, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210530225732/https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/networking/products/data-processing-unit/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Deierling |first=Kevin |date=May 21, 2020 |title=What Is a DPU? {{!}} NVIDIA Blog|url=https://blogs.nvidia.com/blog/2020/05/20/whats-a-dpu-data-processing-unit/|access-date=May 29, 2021|website=The Official NVIDIA Blog|language=en-US|archive-date=September 15, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220915084730/https://blogs.nvidia.com/blog/2020/05/20/whats-a-dpu-data-processing-unit/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Datacenter/server class CPU, codenamed Grace, released in 2023<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://nvidianews.nvidia.com/news/nvidia-announces-cpu-for-giant-ai-and-high-performance-computing-workloads |title=NVIDIA Announces CPU for Giant AI and High Performance Computing Workloads |publisher=NVIDIA |date=April 12, 2021 |access-date=August 5, 2021 |archive-date=August 5, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805172118/https://nvidianews.nvidia.com/news/nvidia-announces-cpu-for-giant-ai-and-high-performance-computing-workloads |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/data-center/grace-cpu/ |title=NVIDIA Grace CPU |publisher=NVIDIA |access-date=August 5, 2021 |archive-date=August 5, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805172713/https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/data-center/grace-cpu/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Nvidia DGX|DGX]], an enterprise platform designed for deep learning applications
* Maxine, a platform providing developers a suite of AI-based conferencing software<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wiggers |first=Kyle |date=2020-10-09 |title=AI Weekly: Nvidia's Maxine opens the door to deepfakes and bias in video calls |url=https://venturebeat.com/ai/ai-weekly-nvidias-maxine-opens-the-door-to-deepfakes-and-bias-in-video-calls/ |access-date=2024-07-02 |website=VentureBeat |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Open-source software support ==
{{See also|Free and open-source graphics device driver|Mesa 3D|nouveau (software)|OpenPOWER Foundation}}
Until September 23, 2013, Nvidia had not published any documentation for its advanced hardware,<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 23, 2013 |title=Nvidia Offers to Release Public Documentation on Certain Aspects of Their GPUs |url=http://lists.freedesktop.org/archives/nouveau/2013-September/014480.html |access-date=September 24, 2013 |archive-date=November 12, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112013329/https://lists.freedesktop.org/archives/nouveau/2013-September/014480.html |url-status=live}}</ref> meaning that programmers could not write [[free and open-source]] [[device driver]] for its products without resorting to [[reverse engineering]].

Instead, Nvidia provides its own binary GeForce graphics drivers for [[X.Org Server|X.Org]] and an open-source library that interfaces with the [[Linux kernel|Linux]], [[FreeBSD]] or [[Solaris (operating system)|Solaris]] kernels and the proprietary graphics software. Nvidia also provided but stopped supporting an obfuscated open-source driver that only supports two-dimensional hardware acceleration and ships with the X.Org distribution.<ref>{{Cite web |title=nv |url=http://www.x.org/wiki/nv |access-date=August 6, 2015 |archive-date=November 12, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112021514/https://www.x.org/wiki/nv/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

The proprietary nature of Nvidia's drivers has generated dissatisfaction within [[Free software community|free-software communities]]. In a 2012 talk, [[Linus Torvalds]], in criticism of Nvidia's approach towards Linux, raised the finger and stated "Nvidia, fuck you."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Paul |first=Ryan |date=June 19, 2012 |title=Linus Torvalds says "f--k you" to NVIDIA |url=https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2012/06/linus-torvalds-says-f-k-you-to-nvidia/ |access-date=March 2, 2024 |website=Ars Technica |language=en-us |archive-date=February 15, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180215023959/https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2012/06/linus-torvalds-says-f-k-you-to-nvidia/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=June 17, 2012 |title=Linus Torvalds: 'fuck you, Nvidia' for not supporting Linux |url=https://www.theverge.com/2012/6/17/3092829/linus-torvalds-fuck-you-nvidia |access-date=July 9, 2013 |website=The Verge |archive-date=December 4, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204164428/https://www.theverge.com/2012/6/17/3092829/linus-torvalds-fuck-you-nvidia |url-status=live}}</ref> Some Linux and BSD users insist on using only open-source drivers and regard Nvidia's insistence on providing nothing more than a binary-only driver as inadequate, given that competing manufacturers such as [[Intel]] offer support and documentation for [[open-source model|open-source]] developers and that others (like [[Advanced Micro Devices|AMD]]) release partial documentation and provide some active development.<ref>{{Cite web |date=August 14, 2006 |title=X.org, distributors, and proprietary modules |url=https://lwn.net/Articles/195351/ |access-date=November 3, 2008 |first=Jonathon |last=Corbet |website=[[LWN.net]] |archive-date=September 21, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190921165358/https://lwn.net/Articles/195351/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="ubuntugamer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20110113115606/http://www.ubuntugamer.com/2011/01/ubuntu-graphics-driver-overview/ An overview of graphic card manufacturers and how well they work with Ubuntu] Ubuntu Gamer, January 10, 2011 (Article by Luke Benstead)</ref>

Nvidia only provides x86/x64 and ARMv7-A versions of their proprietary driver; as a result, features like [[CUDA]] are unavailable on other platforms.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Unix Drivers |url=https://www.nvidia.com/object/unix.html |access-date=August 6, 2015 |archive-date=December 17, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201217085947/https://www.nvidia.com/object/unix.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Some users claim that Nvidia's Linux drivers impose artificial restrictions, like limiting the number of monitors that can be used at the same time, but the company has not commented on these accusations.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kevin Parrish |title=Nvidia Removed Linux Driver Feature Due to Windows |url=http://www.tomshardware.com/news/nvidia-linux-basemosaic-ubuntu-parity,24519.html |access-date=August 6, 2015 |website=Tom's Hardware |date=October 3, 2013 |archive-date=May 21, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230521115822/https://www.tomshardware.com/news/nvidia-linux-basemosaic-ubuntu-parity,24519.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2014, with Maxwell GPUs, Nvidia started to require firmware by them to unlock all features of its graphics cards.<ref>[https://hardware.slashdot.org/story/14/09/27/1254219/nvidia-begins-requiring-signed-gpu-firmware-images NVIDIA Begins Requiring Signed GPU Firmware Images] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111151021/https://hardware.slashdot.org/story/14/09/27/1254219/nvidia-begins-requiring-signed-gpu-firmware-images |date=November 11, 2020 }}, slashdot, September 27, 2014.</ref><ref>[https://www.phoronix.com/scan.php?page=news_item&px=Linux-Firmware-Turing-C-Firm Linux-Firmware Adds Signed NVIDIA Firmware Binaries For Turing's Type-C Controller] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107030340/https://www.phoronix.com/scan.php?page=news_item |date=January 7, 2021 }}, phoronix, February 13, 2019.</ref><ref>[https://www.phoronix.com/scan.php?page=news_item&px=Nouveau-Just-Fixes-Linux-5.3 The Open-Source NVIDIA "Nouveau" Driver Gets A Batch Of Fixes For Linux 5.3] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107030340/https://www.phoronix.com/scan.php?page=news_item |date=January 7, 2021 }}, phoronix, July 19, 2019.</ref>

On May 12, 2022, Nvidia announced that they are opensourcing their GPU kernel modules.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://developer.nvidia.com/blog/nvidia-releases-open-source-gpu-kernel-modules/ |title=NVIDIA Releases Open-Source GPU Kernel Modules |date=May 11, 2022 | access-date=May 12, 2022 | archive-date=May 12, 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220512172814/https://developer.nvidia.com/blog/nvidia-releases-open-source-gpu-kernel-modules/ | url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.phoronix.com/scan.php?page=article&item=nvidia-open-kernel&num=1 |title=NVIDIA Transitioning to Official, Open-Source Linux GPU Kernel Driver | access-date=May 12, 2022 | archive-date=May 12, 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220512173050/https://www.phoronix.com/scan.php?page=article&item=nvidia-open-kernel&num=1 | url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://github.com/NVIDIA/open-gpu-kernel-modules |title=NVIDIA Linux Open GPU Kernel Module Source |website=[[GitHub]] |date=May 17, 2022 | access-date=May 12, 2022 | archive-date=May 12, 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220512172722/https://github.com/NVIDIA/open-gpu-kernel-modules | url-status=live}}</ref> Support for Nvidia's firmware was implemented in nouveau in 2023, which allows proper power management and GPU reclocking for Turing and newer graphics card generations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nouveau NVIDIA GSP Firmware Support Merged For Linux 6.7 |url=https://www.phoronix.com/news/Nouveau-GSP-Merged-Linux-6.7 |access-date=March 2, 2024 |website=Phoronix |language=en |archive-date=March 2, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240302012216/https://www.phoronix.com/news/Nouveau-GSP-Merged-Linux-6.7 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=A Nouveau graphics driver update |first=Jonathon |last=Corbet |url=https://lwn.net/Articles/953144/ |access-date=March 2, 2024 |website=LWN.net |archive-date=March 2, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240302012216/https://lwn.net/Articles/953144/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Deep learning ==
Nvidia GPUs are used in [[deep learning]], and accelerated analytics due to Nvidia's [[CUDA]] software platform and API which allows programmers to utilize the higher number of cores present in GPUs to [[Parallel computing|parallelize]] [[BLAS]] operations which are extensively used in [[machine learning]] algorithms.<ref name="Elsevier" /> They were included in many Tesla, Inc. vehicles before Musk announced at Tesla Autonomy Day in 2019 that the company developed its own SoC and full self-driving computer now and would stop using Nvidia hardware for their vehicles.<ref>{{Cite web |date=August 13, 2020 |title=Nvidia's Self-Driving Vehicle Approach — from Tesla to DHL to Mercedes |url=https://cleantechnica.com/2020/08/13/nvidias-self-driving-vehicle-approach-from-tesla-to-dhl-to-mercedes/ |access-date=October 28, 2020 |website=CleanTechnica |language=en-US |archive-date=January 17, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117215917/https://cleantechnica.com/2020/08/13/nvidias-self-driving-vehicle-approach-from-tesla-to-dhl-to-mercedes/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Google Cloud adds NVIDIA Tesla K80 GPU support to boost deep learning performance – TechRepublic |date=February 22, 2017 |url=http://www.techrepublic.com/article/google-cloud-adds-nvidia-tesla-k80-gpu-support-to-boost-deep-learning-performance/ |access-date=April 19, 2017 |archive-date=June 10, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190610173053/https://www.techrepublic.com/article/google-cloud-adds-nvidia-tesla-k80-gpu-support-to-boost-deep-learning-performance/ |url-status=live}}</ref> These GPUs are used by researchers, laboratories, tech companies and enterprise companies.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Intel, Nvidia Trade Shots Over AI, Deep Learning |date=August 25, 2016 |url=http://www.eweek.com/servers/intel-nvidia-trade-shots-over-ai-deep-learning.html|access-date=April 19, 2017|archive-date=May 21, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230521130755/https://www.eweek.com/servers/intel-nvidia-trade-shots-over-ai-deep-learning/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2009, Nvidia was involved in what was called the "big bang" of deep learning, "as deep-learning neural networks were combined with Nvidia graphics processing units (GPUs)".<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 5, 2016 |title=Nvidia CEO bets big on deep learning and VR |url=https://venturebeat.com/2016/04/05/nvidia-ceo-bets-big-on-deep-learning-and-vr/ |access-date=April 19, 2017 |archive-date=November 25, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125202428/https://venturebeat.com/2016/04/05/nvidia-ceo-bets-big-on-deep-learning-and-vr/ |url-status=live}}</ref> That year, the [[Google Brain]] team used Nvidia GPUs to create [[deep neural networks]] capable of machine learning, where [[Andrew Ng]] determined that GPUs could increase the speed of deep learning systems by about 100 times.<ref>{{Cite news |title=From not working to neural networking |newspaper=The Economist |date=June 23, 2016 |url=https://www.economist.com/news/special-report/21700756-artificial-intelligence-boom-based-old-idea-modern-twist-not|access-date=September 7, 2017|archive-date=December 31, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161231203934/https://www.economist.com/news/special-report/21700756-artificial-intelligence-boom-based-old-idea-modern-twist-not|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== DGX ===
{{Main|Nvidia DGX}}
DGX is a line of [[supercomputers]] by Nvidia.

In April 2016, Nvidia produced the [[DGX-1]] based on an 8 GPU cluster, to improve the ability of users to use deep learning by combining GPUs with integrated deep learning software.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Coldewey |first=Devin |title=NVIDIA announces a supercomputer aimed at deep learning and AI |date=April 5, 2016 |url=https://techcrunch.com/2016/04/05/nvidia-announces-a-supercomputer-aimed-at-deep-learning-and-ai/ |access-date=September 7, 2017 |archive-date=November 29, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129054127/https://techcrunch.com/2016/04/05/nvidia-announces-a-supercomputer-aimed-at-deep-learning-and-ai/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Nvidia gifted its first DGX-1 to [[OpenAI]] in August 2016 to help it train larger and more complex AI models with the capability of reducing processing time from six days to two hours.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Carr |first1=Austin |last2=King |first2=Ian |date=June 15, 2023 |title=How Nvidia Became ChatGPT's Brain and Joined the $1 Trillion Club |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2023-06-15/nvidia-s-ai-chips-power-chatgpt-and-multibillion-dollar-surge |publisher=Bloomberg News |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230618072913/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2023-06-15/nvidia-s-ai-chips-power-chatgpt-and-multibillion-dollar-surge |archive-date=June 18, 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Vanian |first=Jonathan |date=August 15, 2016 |title=Elon Musk's Artificial Intelligence Project Just Got a Free Supercomputer |url=https://fortune.com/2016/08/15/elon-musk-artificial-intelligence-openai-nvidia-supercomputer/ |work=Fortune |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230607233501/https://fortune.com/2016/08/15/elon-musk-artificial-intelligence-openai-nvidia-supercomputer/ |archive-date=June 7, 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> It also developed Nvidia Tesla K80 and P100 GPU-based virtual machines, which are available through [[Google Cloud Platform|Google Cloud]], which Google installed in November 2016.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nichols |first=Shaun |date=February 21, 2017 |title=Google rents out Nvidia Tesla GPUs in its cloud. If you ask nicely, that'll be 70 cents an hour, bud |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2017/02/21/google_says_cloud_gpu_boxes_are_go/ |website=[[The Register]] |access-date=April 19, 2017 |archive-date=July 9, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190709170955/https://www.theregister.co.uk/2017/02/21/google_says_cloud_gpu_boxes_are_go/ |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Microsoft]] added GPU servers in a preview offering of its N series based on Nvidia's Tesla K80s, each containing 4992 processing cores. Later that year, AWS's P2 instance was produced using up to 16 Nvidia Tesla K80 GPUs. That month Nvidia also partnered with IBM to create a software kit that boosts the AI capabilities of [[Watson (computer)|Watson]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=IBM, NVIDIA partner for 'fastest deep learning enterprise solution' in the world – TechRepublic |date=November 14, 2016 |url=http://www.techrepublic.com/article/ibm-nvidia-partner-for-fastest-deep-learning-enterprise-solution-in-the-world/ |access-date=April 19, 2017 |archive-date=October 12, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201012034603/https://www.techrepublic.com/article/ibm-nvidia-partner-for-fastest-deep-learning-enterprise-solution-in-the-world/ |url-status=live}}</ref> called IBM PowerAI.<ref>{{Cite web |date=November 14, 2016 |title=IBM and Nvidia team up to create deep learning hardware |url=https://venturebeat.com/2016/11/14/ibm-and-nvidia-team-up-to-create-deep-learning-hardware/ |access-date=April 19, 2017 |archive-date=October 12, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201012090856/https://venturebeat.com/2016/11/14/ibm-and-nvidia-team-up-to-create-deep-learning-hardware/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=November 15, 2016 |title=IBM and Nvidia make deep learning easy for AI service creators with a new bundle |url=http://www.digitaltrends.com/computing/ibm-nvidia-hardware-software-bundle-deep-learning-ai/ |access-date=April 19, 2017 |archive-date=October 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024185627/https://www.digitaltrends.com/computing/ibm-nvidia-hardware-software-bundle-deep-learning-ai/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Nvidia also offers its own Nvidia Deep Learning software development kit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Facebook 'Big Basin' AI Compute Platform Adopts NVIDIA Tesla P100 For Next Gen Data Centers |url=http://hothardware.com/news/facebook-big-basin-ai-platform-adopts-nvidia-tesla-p100-data-centers |access-date=April 19, 2017 |archive-date=November 26, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126093601/https://hothardware.com/news/facebook-big-basin-ai-platform-adopts-nvidia-tesla-p100-data-centers |url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2017, the GPUs were also brought online at the [[Riken]] Center for Advanced Intelligence Project for [[Fujitsu]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 5, 2017 |title=Nvidia to Power Fujitsu's New Deep Learning System at RIKEN – insideHPC |url=http://insidehpc.com/2017/03/nvidia-power-fujitsus-new-deep-learning-system-riken/ |access-date=April 19, 2017 |archive-date=October 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024004640/https://insidehpc.com/2017/03/nvidia-power-fujitsus-new-deep-learning-system-riken/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The company's deep learning technology led to a boost in its 2017 earnings.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tilley |first=Aaron |date=February 9, 2017 |title=Nvidia Beats Earnings Estimates As Its Artificial Intelligence Business Keeps On Booming |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/aarontilley/2017/02/09/nvidia-beat-earnings-estimates-as-its-artificial-intelligence-business-keeps-on-booming/ |access-date=January 27, 2021 |website=[[Forbes]] |language=en |archive-date=April 19, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419202205/https://www.forbes.com/sites/aarontilley/2017/02/09/nvidia-beat-earnings-estimates-as-its-artificial-intelligence-business-keeps-on-booming/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

In May 2018, researchers at the artificial intelligence department of Nvidia realized the possibility that a robot can learn to perform a job simply by observing the person doing the same job. They have created a system that, after a short revision and testing, can already be used to control the universal robots of the next generation. In addition to GPU manufacturing, Nvidia provides parallel processing capabilities to researchers and scientists that allow them to efficiently run high-performance applications.<ref>[https://newatlas.com/robot-learn-watching-humans/54732/ "Robot see, robot do: Nvidia system lets robots learn by watching humans"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109004513/https://newatlas.com/robot-learn-watching-humans/54732/ |date=November 9, 2020 }} ''New Atlas'', May 23, 2018</ref>

=== Robotics ===
In 2020, Nvidia unveiled "[[Nvidia Omniverse|Omniverse]]", a virtual environment designed for engineers.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Takahashi |first=Dean |date=October 5, 2020 |title=Nvidia announces open beta for Omniverse as a 'metaverse' for engineers |url=https://venturebeat.com/ai/nvidia-announces-open-beta-for-omniverse-as-a-metaverse-for-engineers/ |access-date=June 19, 2024 |website=VentureBeat |language=en-US}}</ref> Nvidia also open-sourced Isaac Sim, which makes use of this Omniverse to train robots through simulations that mimic the physics of the robots and the real world.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Takahashi |first=Dean |date=January 3, 2023 |title=Nvidia advances robot simulation with updates to Isaac Sim |url=https://venturebeat.com/ai/nvidia-advances-robot-simulation-with-updates-to-isaac-sim/ |access-date=June 19, 2024 |website=VentureBeat |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=NVIDIA Isaac Sim |url=https://github.com/isaac-sim |access-date=June 19, 2024 |website=GitHub |language=en}}</ref>

In 2024, Huang oriented Nvidia's focus towards [[humanoid robot]]s and [[self-driving car]]s, which he expects to gain widespread adoption.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Morris |first=Meghan |date=June 3, 2024 |title=Nvidia CEO Jensen Huang says robots are the next wave of AI — and 2 kinds will dominate |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/nvidia-ceo-jensen-huang-pushes-robot-revolution-taiwan-computex-speech-2024-6 |access-date= |website=Business Insider |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Coleman |first=Julie |date=March 20, 2024 |title=Nvidia CEO Jensen Huang explains why he's all in on humanoid robotics |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2024/03/20/nvidia-ceo-jensen-huang-explains-why-hes-all-in-on-humanoid-robotics.html |access-date=June 19, 2024 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref>

== Inception Program ==
Nvidia's '''Inception Program''' was created to support startups making exceptional advances in the fields of artificial intelligence and data science. Award winners are announced at Nvidia's GTC Conference. In May 2017, the program had 1,300 companies.<ref name="NVI15">{{Cite news |date=May 10, 2017 |title=Six Startups Split $1.5 Million in Cash in AI startup competition. |url=https://blogs.nvidia.com/blog/2017/05/10/these-six-ai-startups-just-snagged-a-share-of-1-5-million-in-cash-prizes/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521102741/https://blogs.nvidia.com/blog/2017/05/10/these-six-ai-startups-just-snagged-a-share-of-1-5-million-in-cash-prizes/ |archive-date=May 21, 2022 |access-date=March 28, 2018 |work=The Official NVIDIA Blog |language=en-US}}</ref> As of March 2018, there were 2,800 startups in the Inception Program.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dean Takahashi |date=March 28, 2018 |title=Nvidia's Inception AI contest awards $1 million to 3 top startups |url=https://venturebeat.com/2018/03/27/nvidias-inception-ai-contest-awards-1-million-to-3-top-startups/ |access-date=September 6, 2018 |publisher=Venture Beat |archive-date=November 9, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109013825/https://venturebeat.com/2018/03/27/nvidias-inception-ai-contest-awards-1-million-to-3-top-startups/ |url-status=live}}</ref> As of August 2021, the program has surpassed 8,500 members in 90 countries, with cumulative funding of US$60 billion.<ref>{{Cite news |date=August 2, 2021 |title=Better Than 8K Resolution: NVIDIA Inception Displays Global AI Startup Ecosystem |language=en-US |work=The Official NVIDIA Blog |url=https://blogs.nvidia.com/blog/2021/08/02/inception-8k-members/ |access-date=September 10, 2021 |archive-date=September 10, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210910162307/https://blogs.nvidia.com/blog/2021/08/02/inception-8k-members/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Controversies ==
{{criticism section|date=October 2024}}

=== Maxwell advertising dispute ===
{{Main|GeForce 900 series#Advertising controversy}}

=== GTX 970 hardware specifications ===
Issues with the GeForce GTX 970's specifications were first brought up by users when they found out that the cards, while featuring 4&nbsp;GB of memory, rarely accessed memory over the 3.5&nbsp;GB boundary. Further testing and investigation eventually led to Nvidia issuing a statement that the card's initially announced specifications had been altered without notice before the card was made commercially available, and that the card took a performance hit once memory over the 3.5&nbsp;GB limit were put into use.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pcper.com/reviews/Graphics-Cards/NVIDIA-Discloses-Full-Memory-Structure-and-Limitations-GTX-970 |title=NVIDIA Discloses Full Memory Structure and Limitations of GTX 970 |publisher=PCPer|access-date=January 28, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150225180420/http://www.pcper.com/reviews/Graphics-Cards/NVIDIA-Discloses-Full-Memory-Structure-and-Limitations-GTX-970|archive-date=February 25, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://wccftech.com/nvidia-geforce-gtx-970-memory-issue-fully-explained/ |title=GeForce GTX 970 Memory Issue Fully Explained – Nvidia's Response |date=January 24, 2015 |publisher=WCFTech|access-date=August 16, 2021|archive-date=March 7, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150307020110/http://wccftech.com/nvidia-geforce-gtx-970-memory-issue-fully-explained/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pcgamer.com/why-nvidias-gtx-970-slows-down-using-more-than-35gb-vram/ |title=Why Nvidia's GTX 970 slows down when using more than 3.5GB VRAM |date=January 26, 2015 |publisher=PCGamer|access-date=August 16, 2021|archive-date=March 2, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150302151518/http://www.pcgamer.com/why-nvidias-gtx-970-slows-down-using-more-than-35gb-vram/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The card's back-end hardware specifications, initially announced as being identical to those of the GeForce GTX 980, differed in the amount of L2 cache (1.75&nbsp;MB versus 2&nbsp;MB in the GeForce GTX 980) and the number of ROPs (56 versus 64 in the 980). Additionally, it was revealed that the card was designed to access its memory as a 3.5&nbsp;GB section, plus a 0.5&nbsp;GB one, access to the latter being 7 times slower than the first one.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.anandtech.com/show/8935/geforce-gtx-970-correcting-the-specs-exploring-memory-allocation |title=GeForce GTX 970: Correcting The Specs & Exploring Memory Allocation |publisher=AnandTech|access-date=August 16, 2021|archive-date=February 25, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150225183034/http://www.anandtech.com/show/8935/geforce-gtx-970-correcting-the-specs-exploring-memory-allocation|url-status=live}}</ref> The company then went on to promise a specific driver modification to alleviate the performance issues produced by the cutbacks suffered by the card.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wccftech.com/nvidia-working-driver-geforce-gtx-970-tune-memory-allocation-problems-improve-performance/ |title=NVIDIA Working on New Driver For GeForce GTX 970 To Tune Memory Allocation Problems and Improve Performance |date=January 28, 2015 |publisher=WCFTech|access-date=August 16, 2021|archive-date=February 17, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150217061234/http://wccftech.com/nvidia-working-driver-geforce-gtx-970-tune-memory-allocation-problems-improve-performance/|url-status=live}}</ref> However, Nvidia later clarified that the promise had been a miscommunication and there would be no specific driver update for the GTX 970.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/2876802/nvidia-plans-geforce-gtx-970-driver-update-for-memory-performance-concerns.html/ |title=NVIDIA clarifies no driver update for GTX 970 specifically |date=January 29, 2015 |publisher=PC World|access-date=August 16, 2021|archive-date=August 30, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210830210733/https://www.pcworld.com/article/2876802/nvidia-plans-geforce-gtx-970-driver-update-for-memory-performance-concerns.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Nvidia claimed that it would assist customers who wanted refunds in obtaining them.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pcper.com/news/Graphics-Cards/NVIDIA-Plans-Driver-Update-GTX-970-Memory-Issue-Help-Returns |title=NVIDIA Plans Driver Update for GTX 970 Memory Issue, Help with Returns |work=pcper.com |date=January 28, 2015|access-date=August 16, 2021|archive-date=February 14, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214101918/http://www.pcper.com/news/Graphics-Cards/NVIDIA-Plans-Driver-Update-GTX-970-Memory-Issue-Help-Returns|url-status=live}}</ref> On February 26, 2015, Nvidia CEO Jen-Hsun Huang went on record in Nvidia's official blog to apologize for the incident.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pcgamer.com/nvidia-ceo-addresses-gtx-970-controversy/ |title=Nvidia CEO addresses GTX 970 controversy |publisher=PCGamer |date=February 26, 2015|access-date=August 16, 2021|archive-date=February 27, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227104339/http://www.pcgamer.com/nvidia-ceo-addresses-gtx-970-controversy/|url-status=live}}</ref> In February 2015 a class-action lawsuit alleging false advertising was filed against Nvidia and Gigabyte Technology in the U.S. District Court for Northern California.<ref name="970lawsuit">{{cite news |url=http://www.pcgamer.com/nvidia-faces-false-advertising-lawsuit-over-gtx-970-specs/ |title=Nvidia faces false advertising lawsuit over GTX 970 specs |last=Chalk |first=Andy |date=February 22, 2015 |work=PC Gamer|access-date=March 27, 2015|archive-date=March 24, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150324202726/http://www.pcgamer.com/nvidia-faces-false-advertising-lawsuit-over-gtx-970-specs/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/2887234/nvidia-hit-with-false-advertising-suit-over-gtx-970-performance.html |title=Nvidia hit with false advertising suit over GTX 970 performance |last=Niccolai |first=James |date=February 20, 2015 |work=PC World|access-date=March 27, 2015|archive-date=March 26, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326052210/http://www.pcworld.com/article/2887234/nvidia-hit-with-false-advertising-suit-over-gtx-970-performance.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Nvidia revealed that it is able to disable individual units, each containing 256&nbsp;KB of L2 cache and 8 ROPs, without disabling whole memory controllers.<ref name="AnandTechCorrectionPage2">{{cite web |url=http://www.anandtech.com/show/8935/geforce-gtx-970-correcting-the-specs-exploring-memory-allocation/2 |title=Diving Deeper: The Maxwell 2 Memory Crossbar & ROP Partitions – GeForce GTX 970: Correcting The Specs & Exploring Memory Allocation |author=Ryan Smith |work=anandtech.com|access-date=August 16, 2021|archive-date=February 26, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150226174250/http://www.anandtech.com/show/8935/geforce-gtx-970-correcting-the-specs-exploring-memory-allocation/2|url-status=live}}</ref> This comes at the cost of dividing the memory bus into high speed and low speed segments that cannot be accessed at the same time unless one segment is reading while the other segment is writing because the L2/ROP unit managing both of the GDDR5 controllers shares the read return channel and the write data bus between the two GDDR5 controllers and itself.<ref name="AnandTechCorrectionPage2" /> This is used in the GeForce GTX 970, which therefore can be described as having 3.5 GB in its high speed segment on a 224-bit bus and 0.5 GB in a low speed segment on a 32-bit bus.<ref name="AnandTechCorrectionPage2" />

On July 27, 2016, Nvidia agreed to a preliminary settlement of the U.S. class action lawsuit,<ref name="970lawsuit" /> offering a $30 refund on GTX 970 purchases. The agreed upon refund represents the portion of the cost of the storage and performance capabilities the consumers assumed they were obtaining when they purchased the card.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://topclassactions.com/lawsuit-settlements/lawsuit-news/340705-nvidia-settles-graphics-card-false-advertising-class-action |title=Nvidia settles class action lawsuit |date=July 27, 2016 |work=Top Class Actions|access-date=July 27, 2016|archive-date=July 28, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160728134302/https://topclassactions.com/lawsuit-settlements/lawsuit-news/340705-nvidia-settles-graphics-card-false-advertising-class-action/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== GeForce Partner Program ===

{{Main|GeForce Partner Program}}The Nvidia GeForce Partner Program was a [[marketing]] program designed to provide partnering companies with benefits such as public relations support, [[Video game bundle|video game bundling]], and marketing development funds.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nvidia gets anti-competitive with unsavory GeForce Partner Program |date=March 12, 2018 |url=https://www.techspot.com/news/73661-nvidia-gets-anti-competitive-unsavory-geforce-partner-program.html |publisher=|access-date=April 17, 2021|archive-date=April 17, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417102448/https://www.techspot.com/news/73661-nvidia-gets-anti-competitive-unsavory-geforce-partner-program.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The program proved to be controversial, with complaints about it possibly being an [[anti-competitive]] practice.<ref name=":02">{{cite web |last1=Bennett |first1=Kyle |title=GeForce Partner Program Impacts Consumer Choice |url=https://www.hardocp.com/article/2018/03/07/geforce_partner_program_impacts_consumer_choice |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190712164949/https://www.hardocp.com/article/2018/03/07/geforce_partner_program_impacts_consumer_choice |url-status=dead |archive-date=July 12, 2019 |website=HardOcP |date=March 8, 2018}}</ref>

First announced in a blog post on March 1, 2018,<ref>{{Cite news |date=March 1, 2018 |title=GeForce Partner Program Helps Gamers Know What They're Buying {{!}} NVIDIA Blog|language=en-US|work=The Official NVIDIA Blog|url=https://blogs.nvidia.com/blog/2018/03/01/geforce-partner-program/|access-date=April 10, 2018|archive-date=April 17, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417102449/https://blogs.nvidia.com/blog/2018/03/01/geforce-partner-program/|url-status=live}}</ref> it was canceled on May 4, 2018.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Killian |first1=Zak |date=May 4, 2018 |title=Nvidia puts the kibosh on the GeForce Partner Program |publisher=Tech Report |url=https://techreport.com/news/33603/nvidia-puts-the-kibosh-on-the-geforce-partner-program |accessdate=May 4, 2018|archive-date=August 12, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812101343/https://techreport.com/news/33603/nvidia-puts-the-kibosh-on-the-geforce-partner-program/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Hardware Unboxed ===
On December 10, 2020, Nvidia told [[YouTube]] tech reviewer Steven Walton of Hardware Unboxed that it would no longer supply him with GeForce Founders Edition graphics card review units.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Miller |first=Chris |date=December 12, 2020 |title=Nvidia Under Fire For Banning Review Site That Doesn't Focus On Nvidia Hardware Strengths {{!}} Happy Gamer |url=https://happygamer.com/nvidia-under-fire-for-banning-review-site-that-doesnt-focus-on-nvidia-hardware-strengths-97094/ |access-date=December 13, 2020 |website=HappyGamer |language=en-US |archive-date=December 17, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201217023151/https://happygamer.com/nvidia-under-fire-for-banning-review-site-that-doesnt-focus-on-nvidia-hardware-strengths-97094/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=December 13, 2020 |title=Hardware Unboxed VS NVIDIA: a Masterpiece of Bad Marketing |url=https://pangoly.com/en/blog/hardware-unboxed-vs-nvidia-a-masterpiece-of-bad-marketing/126 |access-date=December 17, 2020 |website=Pangoly |language=en |archive-date=January 23, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123122503/https://pangoly.com/en/blog/hardware-unboxed-vs-nvidia-a-masterpiece-of-bad-marketing/126 |url-status=live}}</ref> In a Twitter message, Hardware Unboxed said, "Nvidia have officially decided to ban us from receiving GeForce Founders Edition GPU review samples. Their reasoning is that we are focusing on rasterization instead of ray tracing. They have said they will revisit this 'should your editorial direction change.'"<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nvidia have officially decided to ban us from receiving GeForce Founders Edition GPU review samples |url=https://twitter.com/hardwareunboxed/status/1337246983682060289 |access-date=December 13, 2020 |website=Twitter |language=en |archive-date=December 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201224024257/https://twitter.com/HardwareUnboxed/status/1337246983682060289 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In emails that were disclosed by Walton from Nvidia Senior PR Manager Bryan Del Rizzo, Nvidia had said:<blockquote>...your GPU reviews and recommendations have continued to focus singularly on rasterization performance, and you have largely discounted all of the other technologies we offer gamers. It is very clear from your community commentary that you do not see things the same way that we, gamers, and the rest of the industry do.<ref name=":1" /></blockquote>TechSpot, partner site of Hardware Unboxed, said, "this and other related incidents raise serious questions around journalistic independence and what they are expecting of reviewers when they are sent products for an unbiased opinion."<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last1=Lal |first1=Arjun Krishna |last2=Franco |first2=Julio |date=December 12, 2020 |title=The ugly side of Nvidia: A rollercoaster ride that shows when Big Tech doesn't get it |url=https://www.techspot.com/news/87946-ugly-side-nvidia-rollercoaster-ride-shows-when-big.html |access-date=December 13, 2020 |website=TechSpot |language=en-US |archive-date=January 5, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210105184243/https://www.techspot.com/news/87946-ugly-side-nvidia-rollercoaster-ride-shows-when-big.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

A number of technology reviewers came out strongly against Nvidia's move.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=December 14, 2020 |title=Nvidia puts pressure on the hardware press |url=https://www.hardwareheaven.com/nvidia-puts-pressure-on-the-hardware-press/ |access-date=December 15, 2020 |website=HardwareHeaven.com |language=en-US |archive-date=December 14, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201214115601/https://www.hardwareheaven.com/nvidia-puts-pressure-on-the-hardware-press/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Linus Sebastian]], of [[Linus Tech Tips]], titled the episode of his weekly WAN Show, "NVIDIA might ACTUALLY be EVIL..."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kokhanyuk |first=Stanislav |title=I believe in ray tracing, but I do not believe in Nvidia's RTX 3000-series GPUs |url=https://www.notebookcheck.net/I-believe-in-ray-tracing-but-I-do-not-believe-in-Nvidia-s-RTX-3000-series-GPUs.509180.0.html |access-date=December 13, 2020 |website=Notebookcheck |date=December 13, 2020 |language=en |archive-date=December 29, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229095954/https://www.notebookcheck.net/I-believe-in-ray-tracing-but-I-do-not-believe-in-Nvidia-s-RTX-3000-series-GPUs.509180.0.html |url-status=live}}</ref> and was highly critical of the company's move to dictate specific outcomes of technology reviews.<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 11, 2020 |title=NVIDIA might ACTUALLY be EVIL... – WAN Show December 11, 2020 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iXn9O-Rzb_M  |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/iXn9O-Rzb_M| archive-date=December 11, 2021 |url-status=live |website=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The review site Gamers Nexus said it was, "Nvidia's latest decision to shoot both its feet: They've now made it so that any reviewers covering RT will become subject to scrutiny from untrusting viewers who will suspect subversion by the company. Shortsighted self-own from NVIDIA."<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 11, 2020 |title=I have something else to say about NVIDIA's latest decision to shoot both its feet: They've now made it so that any reviewers covering RT will become subject to scrutiny from untrusting viewers who will suspect subversion by the company. Shortsighted self-own from NVIDIA. |url=https://twitter.com/gamersnexus/status/1337300582785282049 |access-date=December 13, 2020 |website=Twitter |language=en |archive-date=December 21, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201221025356/https://twitter.com/GamersNexus/status/1337300582785282049 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Two days later, Nvidia reversed their stance.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Farrell |first=Nick |date=December 14, 2020 |title=Nvidia retreats from PR disaster |url=https://fudzilla.com/news/52042-nvidia-retreats-from-pr-disaster |access-date=December 14, 2020 |website=fudzilla.com |language=en-gb |archive-date=December 14, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201214112414/https://www.fudzilla.com/news/52042-nvidia-retreats-from-pr-disaster |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=December 15, 2020 |title=Nvidia issues an Apology for Backlisting Hardware Unboxed as their Reviewer |url=https://appuals.com/nvidia-issues-an-apology-for-backlisting-hardware-unboxed-as-their-reviewer/ |access-date=December 16, 2020 |website=Appuals.com |language=en-US |archive-date=December 15, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215194427/https://appuals.com/nvidia-issues-an-apology-for-backlisting-hardware-unboxed-as-their-reviewer/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> Hardware Unboxed sent out a Twitter message, "I just received an email from Nvidia apologizing for the previous email & they've now walked everything back."<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 12, 2020 |title=I just received an email from Nvidia apologizing for the previous email & they've now walked everything back. |url=https://twitter.com/hardwareunboxed/status/1337885741389471745 |access-date=December 13, 2020 |website=Twitter |language=en |archive-date=January 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210113023143/https://twitter.com/HardwareUnboxed/status/1337885741389471745 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Alderson |first=Alex |title=NVIDIA u-turns on its decision to block Hardware Unboxed from receiving GPU review units |url=https://www.notebookcheck.net/NVIDIA-u-turns-on-its-decision-to-block-Hardware-Unboxed-from-receiving-GPU-review-units.509177.0.html |access-date=December 13, 2020 |website=Notebookcheck |date=December 13, 2020 |language=en |archive-date=December 14, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201214233828/https://www.notebookcheck.net/NVIDIA-u-turns-on-its-decision-to-block-Hardware-Unboxed-from-receiving-GPU-review-units.509177.0.html |url-status=live}}</ref> On December 14, Hardware Unboxed released a video explaining the controversy from their viewpoint.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hardware Unboxed |title=Nvidia Bans Hardware Unboxed, Then Backpedals: Our Thoughts |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wdAMcQgR92k  |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/wdAMcQgR92k| archive-date=December 11, 2021 |url-status=live|access-date=December 14, 2020 |website=YouTube|date=December 14, 2020 }}{{cbignore}}</ref> Via Twitter, they also shared a second apology sent by Nvidia's Del Rizzo that said "to withhold samples because I didn't agree with your commentary is simply inexcusable and crossed the line."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hardware Unboxed |date=December 14, 2020 |title=Twitter: Bryan Del Rizzo from Nvidia has reached out a second time to apologize and asked us to share this with you. |url=https://twitter.com/hardwareunboxed/status/1338709463721672705 |access-date=December 22, 2020 |archive-date=December 15, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215045635/https://twitter.com/HardwareUnboxed/status/1338709463721672705 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Stanley |first=Donny |date=December 15, 2020 |title=NVIDIA Apologizes For Email Blacklisting Reviewer, Retracts Original Statements |url=https://adoredtv.com/nvidia-apologizes-for-email-blacklisting-reviewer-retracts-original-statements/ |access-date=December 22, 2020 |website=AdoredTV |language=en-US |archive-date=December 15, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215095411/https://adoredtv.com/nvidia-apologizes-for-email-blacklisting-reviewer-retracts-original-statements/ |url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Improper disclosures about cryptomining ===
In 2018, Nvidia's chips became popular for [[cryptomining]], the process of obtaining crypto rewards in exchange for verifying transactions on distributed ledgers, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) said. However, the company failed to disclose that it was a "significant element" of its revenue growth from sales of chips designed for gaming, the SEC further added in a statement and charging order. Those omissions misled investors and analysts who were interested in understanding the impact of cryptomining on Nvidia's business, the SEC emphasized. Nvidia, which did not admit or deny the findings, has agreed to pay $5.5 million to settle civil charges, according to a statement made by the SEC in May 2022.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Prentice |first1=Chris |last2=Singh |first2=Kanishka |date=May 6, 2022 |title=Nvidia to pay $5.5 million penalty for 'inadequate disclosures' about cryptomining |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/us-sec-charges-nvidia-with-inadequate-disclosures-about-impact-cryptomining-2022-05-06/ |access-date=May 7, 2022 |archive-date=May 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220507154409/https://www.reuters.com/technology/us-sec-charges-nvidia-with-inadequate-disclosures-about-impact-cryptomining-2022-05-06/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|San Francisco Bay Area|Companies|Electronics|Technology}}
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Fast approximate anti-aliasing]]
* [[General-purpose computing on graphics processing units]]
* [[Huang's law]]
* [[Molecular modeling on GPUs]]
* [[Workstation#Current market|GPU workstations]]
* [[Groq]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
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* {{Official website}}
* [https://developer.nvidia.com/ Nvidia Developer website]
* {{OpenSecrets}}
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[[Category:Technology companies established in 1993]]The_Beatles

{{Short description|English rock band (1960–1970)}}
{{About|the band|their eponymous album|The Beatles (album){{!}}''The Beatles'' (album)|other uses|Beatles (disambiguation)}}
{{Redirect-multi|2|Beatle|Fab Four|the insect|Beetle|other uses|Fab Four (disambiguation)}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Pp|small=yes}}
{{Use British English|date=October 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name              = The Beatles
| image             = The Fabs.JPG
| caption           = The Beatles in 1964; clockwise from top left: [[John Lennon]], [[Paul McCartney]], [[Ringo Starr]] and [[George Harrison]]
| alt               = A square quartered into four head shots of young men with moptop haircuts. All four wear white shirts and dark coats.
| origin            = [[Liverpool]], England
| genre             = {{hlist|[[Rock music|Rock]]|[[Pop music|pop]]|[[beat music|beat]]|[[Psychedelic music|psychedelia]]}} <!--Based on talk page discussions and consensus. Please do not add other genres or sub-genres without first reaching consensus with other editors on the talk page. Thank you.-->
| discography       = {{hlist|[[The Beatles albums discography|Albums]]|[[The Beatles singles discography|singles]]|[[List of songs recorded by the Beatles|songs]]}}
| years_active      = 1960–1970<!--Please discuss on talk page before changing.-->
| label             = {{hlist|[[Polydor Records|Polydor]]|[[Parlophone]]|[[Tollie Records|Tollie]]|[[Vee-Jay Records|Vee-Jay]]|[[Capitol Records|Capitol]]|[[Swan Records|Swan]]|[[United Artists Records|United Artists]]|[[Atco Records|Atco]]|[[Apple Records|Apple]]}}
| spinoff_of        = [[The Quarrymen]]
| website           = {{URL|thebeatles.com}}
| past_members      = * [[John Lennon]]
* [[Paul McCartney]]
* [[George Harrison]]
* [[Ringo Starr]]
* (see [[#Personnel|Personnel section]] for others)
}}

'''The Beatles''' were<!-- Proper nouns that are plural in form take a plural verb in each of American, Canadian and British English. Please do not change "were" to "was". See Talk:The_Beach_Boys/Archive_2#Singular_or_Plural--> an English [[Rock music|rock]] band formed in [[Liverpool]] in 1960. The core lineup of the band comprised [[John Lennon]], [[Paul McCartney]], [[George Harrison]] and [[Ringo Starr]]. They are widely regarded as the [[Cultural impact of the Beatles|most influential band]] in Western [[popular music]] and were integral to the development of [[Counterculture of the 1960s|1960s counterculture]] and the recognition of popular music as an art form.{{sfn|Hasted|2017|p=425}}{{sfn|Frontani|2007|p=125}} Rooted in [[skiffle]], [[beat music|beat]] and 1950s [[rock and roll|rock 'n' roll]], their sound incorporated elements of [[classical music]] and [[traditional pop]] in innovative ways. The band also explored music styles ranging from [[Folk music|folk]] and [[Music of India|Indian music]] to [[Psychedelic music|psychedelia]] and [[hard rock]]. As [[Recording practices of the Beatles|pioneers in recording]], songwriting and artistic presentation, the Beatles revolutionised many aspects of the music industry and were often publicised as leaders of the [[Baby boomers|era's youth]] and sociocultural movements.{{sfn|Frontani|2007|p=157}}

Led by primary songwriters [[Lennon–McCartney|Lennon and McCartney]], the Beatles evolved from Lennon's previous group, [[the Quarrymen]], and built their reputation by playing clubs in Liverpool and [[Hamburg]], Germany, starting in 1960, initially with [[Stuart Sutcliffe]] playing [[Bass guitar|bass]]. The core trio of Lennon, McCartney and Harrison, together since 1958, went through a succession of drummers, including [[Pete Best]], before inviting Starr to join them in 1962. Manager [[Brian Epstein]] moulded them into a professional act, and producer [[George Martin]] developed their recordings, greatly expanding their domestic success after they signed with [[EMI]] and achieved their first hit, "[[Love Me Do]]", in late 1962. As their popularity grew into the intense fan frenzy dubbed "[[Beatlemania]]", the band acquired the nickname "the Fab Four". Epstein, Martin or other members of the band's entourage were sometimes informally referred to as a "[[fifth Beatle]]".

By early 1964, the Beatles were international stars and had achieved unprecedented levels of critical and commercial success. They became a leading force in Britain's cultural resurgence, ushering in the [[British Invasion]] of the United States pop market. They soon made their film debut with ''[[A Hard Day's Night (film)|A Hard Day's Night]]'' (1964). A growing desire to refine their studio efforts, coupled with the challenging nature of their concert tours, led to the band's retirement from live performances in 1966. During this time, they produced albums of greater sophistication, including ''[[Rubber Soul]]'' (1965), ''[[Revolver (Beatles album)|Revolver]]'' (1966) and ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]'' (1967). They enjoyed further commercial success with ''[[The Beatles (album)|The Beatles]]'' (also known as "the White Album", 1968) and ''[[Abbey Road]]'' (1969). The success of these records heralded the [[album era]], increased public interest in [[psychedelic drug]]s and Eastern spirituality, and furthered advancements in [[electronic music]], [[album art]] and [[music video]]s. In 1968, they founded [[Apple Corps]], a multi-armed multimedia corporation that continues to oversee projects related to the band's legacy. After [[Break-up of the Beatles|the group's break-up]] in 1970, all principal former members enjoyed success as solo artists, and some [[Collaborations between ex-Beatles|partial reunions]] occurred. Lennon [[Murder of John Lennon|was murdered]] in 1980, and Harrison died of lung cancer in 2001. McCartney and Starr remain musically active.

The Beatles are the [[List of best-selling music artists|best-selling music act of all time]], with estimated sales of 600&nbsp;million units worldwide.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.ie/entertainment/music/music-news/yeah-yeah-yeah-rare-footage-of-the-beatles-dublin-performance-34420385.html |title=Yeah, Yeah, Yeah! Rare footage of the Beatles's Dublin performance |last=Siggins |first=Gerard |date=7 February 2016 |work=[[Irish Independent]]|access-date=1 December 2017|archive-date=9 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191109095328/https://www.independent.ie/entertainment/music/music-news/yeah-yeah-yeah-rare-footage-of-the-beatles-dublin-performance-34420385.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-19800654 |title=The Beatles at 50: From Fab Four to fabulously wealthy |last=Hotten |first=Russell |date=4 October 2012 |work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=28 January 2013|archive-date=12 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130312172123/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-19800654|url-status=live}}</ref> They are the most successful act in the history of the US [[Billboard charts|''Billboard'' charts]],<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.billboard.com/charts/greatest-of-all-time-artists/ |title=Greatest of All Time Artists |magazine=Billboard|access-date=21 March 2023|archive-date=14 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191114170915/https://www.billboard.com/charts/greatest-of-all-time-artists/|url-status=live}}</ref> with the [[List of Billboard Hot 100 chart achievements and milestones#|most number-one hits]] on the US [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]] chart (20), and they hold the record for most number-one albums on the [[UK Albums Chart]] (15) and most singles sold in the UK (21.9&nbsp;million). The band received [[List of awards and nominations received by the Beatles|many accolades]], including eight [[Grammy Awards]], four [[Brit Awards]], an [[Academy Award]] (for [[Academy Award for Best Original Score#1970s|Best Original Song Score]] for the 1970 documentary film ''[[Let It Be (1970 film)|Let It Be]]'') and fifteen [[Ivor Novello Awards]]. They were inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] in their first year of eligibility, 1988, and each principal member was individually inducted between 1994 and 2015. In 2004 and 2011, the group topped ''[[Rolling Stone]]''{{'}}s lists of [[Rolling Stone's 100 Greatest Artists of All Time|the greatest artists in history]]. ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine named them among the [[Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century|20th century's 100 most important people]].

== History ==
{{The Beatles history}}

=== 1956–1963: Formation ===
<!-- Please be aware that various former names of the Beatles redirect to {{anchor|Formation}}. -->

==== The Quarrymen and name changes ====
{{Main|The Quarrymen}}
In November 1956, sixteen-year-old [[John Lennon]] formed a [[skiffle]] group with several friends from [[Calderstones School|Quarry Bank High School]] in [[Liverpool]]. They were called ''[[the Quarrymen]]'', a reference to their school song "Quarry men old before our birth".{{sfn|Lewisohn|2013|pp=104}} Fifteen-year-old [[Paul McCartney]] met Lennon on 6 July 1957 and joined as a [[rhythm guitar]]ist shortly after.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|pp=93–99}} In February 1958, McCartney invited his friend [[George Harrison]], then aged fifteen, to watch the band. Harrison auditioned for Lennon, impressing him with his playing, but Lennon initially thought Harrison was too young. After a month's persistence, during a second meeting (arranged by McCartney), Harrison performed the lead guitar part of the instrumental song "[[Raunchy (instrumental)|Raunchy]]" on the upper deck of a Liverpool bus,<ref>{{harvnb|Miles|1997|p=47}}; {{harvnb|Spitz|2005|p=127}}.</ref> and they enlisted him as [[lead guitar]]ist.{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=47}}{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=13}}

By January 1959, Lennon's Quarry Bank friends had left the group and he began his studies at the [[Liverpool College of Art]].{{sfn|Harry|2000a|p=103}} The three guitarists, billing themselves as Johnny and the Moondogs,{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=17}} were playing [[rock and roll]] whenever they could find a drummer.{{sfn|Harry|2000b|pp=742–743}} They also performed as ''the Rainbows''. Paul McCartney later told ''New Musical Express'' that they called themselves that "because we all had different coloured shirts and we couldn't afford any others!"<ref>{{cite news |last1=Smith |first1=Alan |title=The Beatles, Paul McCartney: Close-Up on Paul McCartney, a Beatle |work=New Musical Express |publisher=NME Networks |date=9 August 1963 |location=London, England}}</ref>

Lennon's art school friend [[Stuart Sutcliffe]], who had just sold one of his paintings and was persuaded to purchase a bass guitar with the proceeds, joined in January 1960. He suggested changing the band's name to ''Beatals'', as a tribute to [[Buddy Holly]] and [[the Crickets]].{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=18}}{{sfn|Gilliland| 1969|loc=show 27, track 4}} They used this name until May, when they became ''the Silver Beetles'', before undertaking a brief [[The Beat Ballad Show Tour|tour of Scotland]] as the backing group for pop singer and fellow [[Liverpudlian]] [[Johnny Gentle]]. By early July, they had refashioned themselves as ''the Silver Beatles'' and by the middle of August simply ''the Beatles''.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=18–22}}

==== Early residencies and UK popularity ====
[[Allan Williams]], the Beatles' unofficial manager, arranged a [[The Beatles in Hamburg|residency for them in Hamburg]]. They auditioned and hired drummer [[Pete Best]] in mid-August 1960. The band, now a five-piece, departed Liverpool for Hamburg four days later, contracted to club owner [[Bruno Koschmider]] for what would be a 3½ -month residency.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=21–25}} Beatles historian [[Mark Lewisohn]] writes: "They pulled into Hamburg at dusk on 17 August, the time when the [[Reeperbahn|red-light area]] comes to life&nbsp;... flashing neon lights screamed out the various entertainment on offer, while scantily clad women sat unabashed in shop windows waiting for business opportunities."{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=22}}

Koschmider had converted a couple of strip clubs in the [[Red-light district|Red light]] [[Reeperbahn]] district of [[St. Pauli]] into music venues and initially placed the Beatles at the [[The Beatles in Hamburg#The Indra and Kaiserkeller|Indra Club]]. After closing Indra due to noise complaints, he moved them to the [[Kaiserkeller]] in October.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=23}} When he learned they had been performing at the rival [[Top Ten Club]] in breach of their contract, he gave them one month's termination notice,{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=24, 33}} and reported the underage Harrison, who had obtained permission to stay in Hamburg by lying to the German authorities about his age.{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=88}} The authorities arranged for Harrison's deportation in late November.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=24}} One week later, Koschmider had McCartney and Best arrested for arson after they set fire to a condom in a concrete corridor; the authorities deported them.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=24–25}} Lennon returned to Liverpool in early December, while Sutcliffe remained in Hamburg until late February with his German fiancée [[Astrid Kirchherr]],{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=25}} who took the first semi-professional photos of the Beatles.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|pp=222–224}}

During the next two&nbsp;years, the Beatles were 
[[The Beatles in Hamburg|resident for periods in Hamburg]], where they used [[Phenmetrazine|Preludin]] both recreationally and to maintain their energy through all-night performances.{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=66–67}} In 1961, during their second Hamburg engagement, Kirchherr cut Sutcliffe's hair in the "[[exi (subculture)|exi]]" (existentialist) style, later adopted by the other Beatles.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=32}}{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=76}} Later on, Sutcliffe decided to leave the band early that year and resume his art studies in Germany. McCartney took over bass.{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=89, 94}} Producer [[Bert Kaempfert]] contracted what was now a four-piece group until June 1962, and he used them as [[Tony Sheridan]]'s [[backup band|backing band]] on a series of recordings for [[Polydor Records]].{{sfn|Gilliland|1969|loc=show 27, track 4}}{{sfn|Spitz|2005|pp=249–251}} As part of the sessions, the Beatles were signed to Polydor for one&nbsp;year.{{sfn|Lewisohn|2013|p=450}} Credited to "Tony Sheridan & the Beat Brothers", the single "[[My Bonnie]]", recorded in June 1961 and released four months later, reached number 32 on the ''[[Musikmarkt]]'' chart.{{sfn|Everett|2001|p=100}}

After the Beatles completed their second [[The Beatles in Hamburg|Hamburg residency]], they enjoyed increasing popularity in Liverpool with the growing [[beat music|Merseybeat]] movement. However, they were growing tired of the monotony of numerous appearances at the same clubs night after night.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=33}} In November 1961, during one of the group's frequent performances at [[the Cavern Club]], they encountered [[Brian Epstein]], a local record-store owner and music columnist.{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=84–87}} He later recalled: "I immediately liked what I heard. They were fresh, and they were honest, and they had what I thought was a sort of presence&nbsp;... [a] star quality."{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=34–35}}

==== First EMI recordings ====
Epstein courted the band over the next couple of months, and they appointed him as their manager in January 1962.{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=84–88}} Throughout early and mid-1962, Epstein sought to free the Beatles from their contractual obligations to Bert Kaempfert Productions. He eventually negotiated a one-month early release in exchange for one last recording session in Hamburg.{{sfn|Winn|2008|p=10}} On their return to Germany in April, a distraught Kirchherr met them at the airport with news of Sutcliffe's death the previous day from a [[intracerebral hemorrhage|brain haemorrhage]].{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=56}} Epstein began negotiations with record labels for a recording contract. To secure a UK record contract, Epstein negotiated an early end to the band's contract with Polydor, in exchange for more recordings backing Tony Sheridan.{{sfn|Lewisohn|2013|p=612, 629}} After a New Year's Day audition, [[The Beatles' Decca audition|Decca Records rejected the band]], saying, "Guitar groups are on the way out, Mr. Epstein".{{sfn|The Beatles|2000|p=67}} However, three months later, producer [[George Martin]] signed the Beatles to [[EMI]]'s [[Parlophone]] label.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=56}}

[[File:Abbey Rd Studios.jpg|thumb|right|Main entrance at [[EMI Studios]] (now Abbey Road Studios, pictured 2007) |alt=A flight of stone steps leads from an asphalt car park up to the main entrance of a white two-story building. The ground floor has two sash windows, the first floor has three shorter sash windows. Two more windows are visible at basement level. The decorative stonework around the doors and windows is painted grey.]]

Martin's first recording session with the Beatles took place at [[Abbey Road Studios|EMI Recording Studios]] (later Abbey Road Studios) in London on 6 June 1962.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=59}} He immediately complained to Epstein about Best's drumming and suggested they use a [[session musician|session drummer]] in his place.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|pp=318, 322}} Already contemplating Best's dismissal,{{sfn|Miles|1998|pp=49–50}} the Beatles replaced him in mid-August with [[Ringo Starr]], who left [[Rory Storm and the Hurricanes]] to join them.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=59}} A 4 September session at EMI yielded a recording of "[[Love Me Do]]" featuring Starr on drums, but a dissatisfied Martin hired drummer [[Andy White (drummer)|Andy White]] for the band's third session a week later, which produced recordings of "Love Me Do", "[[Please Please Me (song)|Please Please Me]]" and "[[P.S. I Love You (Beatles song)|P.S. I Love You]]".{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=59}}

Martin initially selected the Starr version of "Love Me Do" for the band's first single, though subsequent re-pressings featured the White version, with Starr on tambourine.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=59}} Released in early October, "Love Me Do" peaked at number seventeen on the ''[[Record Retailer]]'' chart.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=59–60}} Their television debut came later that month with a live performance on the regional news programme ''[[Granada Reports|People and Places]]''.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=81, 355}} After Martin suggested rerecording "Please Please Me" at a faster tempo,{{sfn|The Beatles|2000|p=90}} a studio session in late November yielded that recording,{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=62, 84}} of which Martin accurately predicted, "You've just made your first No.&nbsp;1".{{sfn|Harry|2000a|p=875}}

In December 1962, the Beatles concluded their fifth and final Hamburg residency at the [[Star-Club]].{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=62, 86}} By 1963, they had agreed that all four band members would contribute vocals to their albums – including Starr, despite his restricted vocal range, to validate his standing in the group.{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=191}} Lennon and McCartney had established [[Lennon–McCartney|a songwriting partnership]], and as the band's success grew, their dominant collaboration limited Harrison's opportunities as a [[lead vocalist]].{{sfn|Harry|2000a|p=494}} Epstein, to maximise the Beatles' commercial potential, encouraged them to adopt a professional approach to performing.{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=128, 133–134}} Lennon recalled him saying, "Look, if you really want to get in these bigger places, you're going to have to change&nbsp;– stop eating on stage, stop swearing, stop smoking&nbsp;...".{{sfn|The Beatles|2000|p=67}}{{refn|group=nb|Lennon said of Epstein, "We used to dress how we liked, on and off stage. He'd tell us that jeans were not particularly smart and could we possibly manage to wear proper trousers, but he didn't want us suddenly looking square. He'd let us have our own sense of individuality."{{sfn|The Beatles|2000|p=67}}}}

=== 1963–1966: Beatlemania and touring years ===
{{Main|Beatlemania}}

==== ''Please Please Me'' and ''With the Beatles'' ====
[[File:The Beatles logo.svg|thumb|left|upright=0.7|alt=The logo of the English rock band the Beatles|The band's logo was designed by [[Ivor Arbiter]].{{sfn|Womack|2007|p=76}}]]

On 11 February 1963, the Beatles recorded ten songs during a single studio session for their debut LP, ''[[Please Please Me]]''. It was supplemented by the four tracks already released on their first two singles. Martin considered recording the LP live at The Cavern Club, but after deciding that the building's acoustics were inadequate, he elected to simulate a "live" album with minimal production in "a single marathon session at Abbey Road".{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=147}} After the moderate success of "Love Me Do", the single "Please Please Me" was released in January 1963, two months ahead of the album. It reached number one on every UK chart except ''Record Retailer'', where it peaked at number two.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=88, 351}}

Recalling how the Beatles "rushed to deliver a debut album, bashing out ''Please Please Me'' in a day", [[AllMusic]] critic [[Stephen Thomas Erlewine]] wrote: "Decades after its release, the album still sounds fresh, precisely because of its intense origins."<ref name="Please Please Me AllMusic">{{cite web |last=Erlewine |first=Stephen Thomas |author-link=Stephen Thomas Erlewine |title=''Please Please Me'' – The Beatles |publisher=[[AllMusic]] |url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/please-please-me-mw0000649873 |access-date=21 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530202703/http://www.allmusic.com/album/please-please-me-mw0000649873 |archive-date=30 May 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> Lennon said little thought went into composition at the time; he and McCartney were "just writing songs ''à la'' [[The Everly Brothers|Everly Brothers]], ''à la'' Buddy Holly, pop songs with no more thought of them than that&nbsp;– to create a sound. And the words were almost irrelevant."{{sfn|Sheff|1981|p=129}}

{{listen
|type=music
|filename=She Loves You (Beatles song - sample).ogg
|title="She Loves You"
|description=Sample of "[[She Loves You]]". The song's repeated use of "yeah" exclamations became a signature phrase for the group at the time.{{sfn|Davies|1968|p=200}}{{sfn|Lewisohn|1988|p=35}}
}}
Released in March 1963, ''Please Please Me'' was the first of eleven consecutive Beatles albums released in the United Kingdom to reach number one.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=90, 351}} The band's third single, "[[From Me to You]]", came out in April and began an almost unbroken string of seventeen British number-one singles, including all but one of the eighteen they released over the next six&nbsp;years.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=89, 350–351}} Issued in August, their fourth single, "[[She Loves You]]", achieved the fastest sales of any record in the UK up to that time, selling three-quarters of a million copies in under four weeks.{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=159}} It became their first single to sell a million copies and remained the biggest-selling record in the UK until 1978.{{sfn|Harry|2000a|p=990}}{{refn|group=nb|"She Loves You" was surpassed in sales by "[[Mull of Kintyre (song)|Mull of Kintyre]]", by McCartney's post-Beatles band [[Paul McCartney and Wings|Wings]].{{sfn|Harry|2000a|p=990}}}}

The success brought increased media exposure, to which the Beatles responded with an irreverent and comical attitude that defied the expectations of pop musicians at the time, inspiring even more interest.{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=166–169}} The band toured the UK three times in the first half of the year: a four-week tour that began in February, the Beatles' first nationwide, preceded three-week tours in March and May–June.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=90, 98–105, 109–112}} As their popularity spread, a frenzied adulation of the group took hold. On 13 October, the Beatles starred on ''[[Tonight at the London Palladium|Sunday Night at the London Palladium]]'', the UK's top variety show.{{sfn|Pawlowski|1990|p=146}} Their performance was televised live and watched by 15&nbsp;million viewers. One national paper's headlines in the following days coined the term "[[Beatlemania]]" to describe the riotous enthusiasm by screaming fans who greeted the band – and it stuck.{{sfn|Pawlowski|1990|p=146}}{{sfn|Spitz|2005|pp=444–445}} Although not billed as tour leaders, the Beatles overshadowed American acts [[Tommy Roe]] and [[Chris Montez]] during the February engagements and assumed top billing "by audience demand", something no British act had previously accomplished while touring with artists from the US.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=88}} A similar situation arose during their May–June [[Roy Orbison/The Beatles Tour|tour with Roy Orbison]].{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=90}}

[[File:The Beatles and Lill-Babs 1963.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Paul McCartney, George Harrison, Swedish pop singer Lill-Babs and John Lennon on the set of the Swedish television show Drop-In in 1963|McCartney, Harrison, Swedish pop singer [[Lill-Babs]] and Lennon on the set of the [[Sveriges Television|Swedish television]] show ''Drop-In'', 30 October 1963{{sfn|Miles|1998|p=86}}]]

In late October, the Beatles began a five-day tour of Sweden, their first time abroad since the final Hamburg engagement of December 1962.{{sfn|Harry|2000a|p=1088}} On their return to the UK on 31 October, several hundred screaming fans greeted them in heavy rain at [[Heathrow Airport]]. Around 50 to 100 journalists and photographers, as well as representatives from the [[BBC Television|BBC]], also joined the airport reception, the first of more than 100 such events.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=92–93}} The next day, the band began its fourth tour of Britain within nine months, this one scheduled for six weeks.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=127–133}} In mid-November, as Beatlemania intensified, police resorted to using high-pressure water hoses to control the crowd before a concert in Plymouth.{{sfn|Davies|1968|pp=184–185}} On 4 November, they played in front of [[Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother|The Queen Mother]] and [[Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon|Princess Margaret]] during the [[List of Royal Variety Performances#1960s|Royal Variety Performance]] at the [[Prince of Wales Theatre]].{{sfn|Miles|2001|p=111}}

''Please Please Me'' maintained the top position on the ''Record Retailer'' chart for 30 weeks, only to be displaced by its follow-up, ''[[With the Beatles]]'',{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=90, 92, 100}} which EMI released on 22 November to record advance orders of 270,000 copies. The LP topped a half-million albums sold in one week.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=93}} Recorded between July and October, ''With the Beatles'' made better use of studio production techniques than its predecessor.{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=187}} It held the top spot for 21 weeks with a chart life of 40 weeks.{{sfn|Harry|2000a|p=1161}} Erlewine described the LP as "a sequel of the highest order – one that betters the original".<ref>{{cite web |last=Erlewine |first=Stephen Thomas |title=''With the Beatles'' – The Beatles |publisher=AllMusic |url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/with-the-beatles-mw0000192941 |access-date=21 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530202746/http://www.allmusic.com/album/with-the-beatles-mw0000192941 |archive-date=30 May 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In a reversal of then standard practice, EMI released the album ahead of the impending single "[[I Want to Hold Your Hand]]", with the song excluded to maximise the single's sales.{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=187–188}} The album caught the attention of music critic [[William Mann (critic)|William Mann]] of ''[[The Times]]'', who suggested that Lennon and McCartney were "the outstanding English composers of 1963".{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=187}} The newspaper published a series of articles in which Mann offered detailed analyses of the music, lending it respectability.{{sfn|Harry|2000a|p=1162}} ''With the Beatles'' became the second album in UK chart history to sell a million copies, a figure previously reached only by the 1958 [[South Pacific (soundtrack)|''South Pacific'' soundtrack]].{{sfn|Harry|2000b|p=978}} When writing the [[liner notes|sleeve notes]] for the album, the band's press officer, [[Tony Barrow]], used the superlative the "fabulous foursome", which the media widely adopted as "the Fab Four".{{sfn|Harry|2000a|p=402}}
{{clear|left}}

==== First visit to the United States and the British Invasion ====
{{Main|British Invasion}}[[File:The Beatles arrive at JFK Airport.jpg|thumb|alt=A black-and-white image of four men standing in front of a crowd of people at the bottom of an aeroplane staircase|The Beatles arriving at [[John F. Kennedy International Airport]], 7 February 1964]]
EMI's American subsidiary, [[Capitol Records]], hindered the Beatles' releases in the United States for more than a year by initially declining to issue their music, including their first three singles. Concurrent negotiations with the independent US label [[Vee-Jay]] led to the release of some, but not all, of the songs in 1963.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=350}} Vee-Jay finished preparation for the album ''[[Introducing... The Beatles]]'', comprising most of the songs of Parlophone's ''Please Please Me'', but a management shake-up led to the album not being released.{{refn|group=nb|Vee-Jay company president [[Ewart Abner]] resigned after it was disclosed he used company funds to cover gambling debts.{{sfn|Spizer|2004|p=36}}}} After it emerged that the label did not report royalties on their sales, the licence that Vee-Jay had signed with EMI was voided.{{sfn|Spizer|2004|p=40}} A new licence was granted to the [[Swan Records|Swan]] label for the single "She Loves You". The record received some airplay in the [[Tidewater region|Tidewater area]] of Virginia from Gene Loving of radio station [[WGH (AM)|WGH]] and was featured on the "Rate-a-Record" segment of ''[[American Bandstand]]'', but it failed to catch on nationally.{{sfn|Harry|2000a|pp=225–226, 228, 1118–1122}}
[[File:Beatlemania fan - Press and Sun-Bulletin (1964).jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.9|Newspaper clipping, 8 February 1964]]

Epstein brought a demo copy of "[[I Want to Hold Your Hand]]" to Capitol's [[Brown Meggs]], who signed the band and arranged for a $40,000 US marketing campaign. American chart success began after disc jockey Carroll James of AM radio station [[WQOF|WWDC]], in Washington, DC, obtained a copy of the British single "I Want to Hold Your Hand" in mid-December 1963 and began playing it on-air.<ref>{{cite news |last=Vries |first=Lloyd |title=Beatles' 'Helping Hand' Shuns Fame |publisher=[[CBS News]] |date=16 January 2004 |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/beatles-helping-hand-shuns-fame/|access-date=28 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806140924/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/beatles-helping-hand-shuns-fame/|archive-date=6 August 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Taped copies of the song soon circulated among other radio stations throughout the US. This caused an increase in demand, leading Capitol to bring forward the release of "I Want to Hold Your Hand" by three weeks.{{sfn|Everett|2001|p=206}} Issued on 26 December, with the band's previously scheduled debut there just weeks away, "I Want to Hold Your Hand" sold a million copies, becoming a number-one hit in the US by mid-January.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=136, 350}} In its wake Vee-Jay released ''Introducing... The Beatles''{{sfn|Spizer|2004|p=96}} along with Capitol's debut album, ''[[Meet the Beatles!]]'', while Swan reactivated production of "She Loves You".{{sfn|Davies|1968|p=218}}

{{multiple image|image1=Beatles with Ed Sullivan.jpg|image2=The Beatles performing at The Ed Sullivan Show (cropped 2).jpg|direction=vertical|footer=The Beatles performing on ''[[The Ed Sullivan Show]],'' February 1964}}
On 7 February 1964, the Beatles departed from Heathrow with an estimated 4,000 fans waving and screaming as the aircraft took off.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=457}} Upon landing at New York's [[John F. Kennedy International Airport|John F. Kennedy Airport]], an uproarious crowd estimated at 3,000 greeted them.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=459}} They gave their first live US television performance two days later on ''[[The Beatles on The Ed Sullivan Show|The Ed Sullivan Show]]'', watched by approximately 73&nbsp;million viewers in over 23&nbsp;million households,{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=137}} or 34 per cent of the American population. Biographer Jonathan Gould writes that, according to the [[Nielsen ratings|Nielsen]] rating service, it was "the largest audience that had ever been recorded for an American television {{lang|en-US|program}}".{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=3}} The next morning, the Beatles awoke to a largely negative critical consensus in the US,{{sfn|Spitz|2005|pp=473–474}} but a day later at their first US concert, Beatlemania erupted at the [[Washington Coliseum]].{{sfn|Harry|2000a|pp=1134–1135}} Back in New York the following day, the Beatles met with another strong reception during two shows at [[Carnegie Hall]].{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=137}} The band flew to Florida, where they appeared on ''The Ed Sullivan Show'' a second time, again before 70&nbsp;million viewers, before returning to the UK on 22 February.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=137, 146–147}}

The Beatles' first visit to the US took place when the nation was still mourning the [[assassination of John F. Kennedy|assassination of President John F. Kennedy]] the previous November.<ref name="Gimore (RS Beatles/Dylan/60s)">{{cite magazine |last1=Gilmore |first1=Mikal |title=Bob Dylan, the Beatles, and the Rock of the Sixties |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/bob-dylan-the-beatles-and-the-rock-roll-of-the-60s-19900823 |magazine=Rolling Stone|access-date=19 February 2018 |date=23 August 1990|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219151727/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/bob-dylan-the-beatles-and-the-rock-roll-of-the-60s-19900823|archive-date=19 February 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Commentators often suggest that for many, particularly the young, the Beatles' performances reignited the sense of excitement and possibility that momentarily faded in the wake of the assassination and helped pave the way for the revolutionary social changes to come later in the decade.<ref>{{cite web |work=Slate |url=http://www.slate.com/articles/arts/culturebox/2013/11/kennedy_s_assassination_the_beatles_and_phil_spector_nov_22_1963_was_a_bad.html |title=Did JFK's Death Make Beatlemania Possible? |first=Jack |last=Hamilton |date=18 November 2013|access-date=23 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140925143800/http://www.slate.com/articles/arts/culturebox/2013/11/kennedy_s_assassination_the_beatles_and_phil_spector_nov_22_1963_was_a_bad.html|archive-date=25 September 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Their hairstyle, unusually long for the era and mocked by many adults,{{sfn|Gilliland| 1969|loc=show 27, track 4}} became an emblem of rebellion to the burgeoning youth culture.{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=345}}

The group's popularity generated unprecedented interest in British music, and many other UK acts subsequently made their American debuts, successfully touring over the next three years in what was termed the [[British Invasion]].{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=9, 250, 285}} The Beatles' success in the US opened the door for a successive string of British [[Beat music|beat groups]] and [[Pop music|pop]] acts such as [[the Dave Clark Five]], [[the Animals]], [[Herman's Hermits]], [[Petula Clark]], [[the Kinks]] and [[the Rolling Stones]] to achieve success in America.<ref name="Puterbaugh (British Invasion)">{{cite magazine |last1=Puterbaugh |first1=Parke |title=The British Invasion: From the Beatles to the Stones, The Sixties Belonged to Britain |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/the-british-invasion-from-the-beatles-to-the-stones-the-sixties-belonged-to-britain-19880714 |magazine=Rolling Stone|access-date=19 February 2018 |date=14 July 1988|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170530194323/http://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/the-british-invasion-from-the-beatles-to-the-stones-the-sixties-belonged-to-britain-19880714|archive-date=30 May 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> During the week of 4 April 1964, the Beatles held twelve positions on the [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]] singles chart, including the top five.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=138}}{{refn|group=nb|During the same week in April 1964, a third American Beatles LP joined the two already in circulation; two of the three reached the first spot on the ''Billboard'' [[Billboard 200|albums chart]], the third peaked at number two.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=351}}}}

==== ''A Hard Day's Night'' ====
{{Main|A Hard Day's Night (film){{!}}''A Hard Day's Night'' (film)}}
Capitol Records' lack of interest throughout 1963 did not go unnoticed, and a competitor, [[United Artists Records]], encouraged [[United Artists|its film division]] to offer the Beatles a three-motion-picture deal, primarily for the commercial potential of the soundtracks in the US.{{sfn|Harry|2000a|pp=483–484}} Directed by [[Richard Lester]], ''[[A Hard Day's Night (film)|A Hard Day's Night]]'' involved the band for six weeks in March–April 1964 as they played themselves in a musical comedy.{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=230–232}} The film premiered in London and New York in July and August, respectively, and was an international success, with some critics drawing a comparison with the [[Marx Brothers]].{{sfn|Harry|2000a|pp=489–490}}

United Artists released a [[A Hard Day's Night (album)#North American release|full soundtrack album]] for the North American market, combining Beatles songs and Martin's orchestral score; elsewhere, the group's third studio LP, ''[[A Hard Day's Night (album)|A Hard Day's Night]]'', contained songs from the film on side one and other new recordings on side two.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1988|p=47}} According to Erlewine, the album saw them "truly coming into their own as a band. All of the disparate influences on their first two albums coalesced into a bright, joyous, original sound, filled with ringing guitars and irresistible melodies."<ref>{{cite web |last=Erlewine |first=Stephen Thomas |title=''A Hard Day's Night'' – The Beatles |publisher=AllMusic |url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/a-hard-days-night-mw0001948685 |access-date=21 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530233822/http://www.allmusic.com/album/a-hard-days-night-mw0001948685 |archive-date=30 May 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> That "ringing guitar" sound was primarily the product of Harrison's [[Rickenbacker 360/12|12-string electric Rickenbacker]], a prototype given to him by the manufacturer, which made its debut on the record.{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=286–287}}{{refn|group=nb|Harrison's ringing 12-string inspired [[Roger McGuinn]], who obtained his own Rickenbacker and used it to craft the trademark sound of [[the Byrds]].{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=286–287}}}}

==== 1964 world tour, meeting Bob Dylan and stand on civil rights ====
[[File:Paul, George & John.png|thumb|upright=1.2|right|alt=Paul McCartney, George Harrison and John Lennon of the Beatles performing on Dutch TV in 1964|McCartney, Harrison and Lennon performing on Dutch TV in 1964]]

Touring internationally in June and July, the Beatles staged 37 shows over 27 days in Denmark, the Netherlands, Hong Kong, Australia and New Zealand.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=161–165}}{{refn|group=nb|Starr was briefly hospitalised after a [[tonsillectomy]], and [[Jimmie Nicol]] sat in on drums for the first five dates.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=160–161, 163}}}} In August and September, they returned to the US, with a 30-concert tour of 23 cities.{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=249}} Generating intense interest once again, the month-long tour attracted between 10,000 and 20,000 people to each 30-minute performance in cities from San Francisco to New York.{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=249}}

In August, journalist [[Al Aronowitz]] arranged for the Beatles to meet [[Bob Dylan]].{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=252}} Visiting the band in their New York hotel suite, Dylan introduced them to [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]].{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=185}} Gould points out the musical and cultural significance of this meeting, before which the musicians' respective fanbases were "perceived as inhabiting two separate subcultural worlds": Dylan's audience of "college kids with artistic or intellectual leanings, a dawning political and social idealism, and a mildly [[bohemian style]]" contrasted with their fans, "veritable '[[teenybopper]]s' – kids in high school or grade school whose lives were totally wrapped up in the commercialised popular culture of television, radio, pop records, fan magazines and teen fashion. To many of Dylan's followers in the [[folk music]] scene, the Beatles were seen as idolaters, not idealists."{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=252–253}}

Within six months of the meeting, according to Gould, "Lennon would be making records on which he openly imitated Dylan's nasal drone, brittle strum, and introspective vocal persona"; and six months after that, Dylan began performing with a backing band and [[Electric Dylan controversy|electric instrumentation]], and "dressed in the height of Mod fashion".{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=253}} As a result, Gould continues, the traditional division between folk and rock enthusiasts "nearly evaporated", as the Beatles' fans began to mature in their outlook and Dylan's audience embraced the new, youth-driven pop culture.{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=253}}

During [[The Beatles' 1964 North American tour|the 1964 US tour]], the group were confronted with [[Racial segregation in the United States|racial segregation]] in the country at the time.<ref name="Integration (BBC)">{{cite news |title=The Beatles Banned Segregated Audiences, Contract Shows |publisher=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-14963752 |date=18 September 2011|access-date=17 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180214193031/http://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-14963752|archive-date=14 February 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Integration (Mirken)">{{cite web |last=Mirken |first=Bruce |title=1964, Civil Rights – and the Beatles? |website=Greenling Institute |url=http://greenlining.org/blog/2013/1964-civil-rights-and-the-beatles/ |date=11 September 2013|access-date=17 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180220034646/http://greenlining.org/blog/2013/1964-civil-rights-and-the-beatles/|archive-date=20 February 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> When informed that the venue for their 11 September concert, the [[Gator Bowl Stadium|Gator Bowl]] in [[Jacksonville, Florida]], was segregated, the Beatles said they would refuse to perform unless the audience was integrated.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=171}}<ref name="Integration (BBC)" /><ref name="Integration (Mirken)" /> Lennon stated: "We never play to segregated audiences and we aren't going to start now&nbsp;... I'd sooner lose our appearance money."<ref name="Integration (BBC)" /> City officials relented and agreed to allow an integrated show.<ref name="Integration (BBC)" /> The group also cancelled their reservations at the whites-only [[Hotel George Washington (Jacksonville)|Hotel George Washington]] in Jacksonville.<ref name="Integration (Mirken)" /> For their subsequent US tours in 1965 and 1966, the Beatles included clauses in contracts stipulating that shows be integrated.<ref name="Integration (Mirken)" /><ref name="Integration (Huffpost)">{{cite news |title=Beatles Refused to Play for Segregated Audiences, Contract Reveal |newspaper=Huffington Post |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/09/16/beatles-refused-to-play-segregated-audiences_n_966541.html |date=16 November 2011|access-date=17 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516112443/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/09/16/beatles-refused-to-play-segregated-audiences_n_966541.html|archive-date=16 May 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== ''Beatles for Sale'', ''Help!'' and ''Rubber Soul'' ====
According to Gould, the Beatles' fourth studio LP, ''[[Beatles for Sale]]'', evidenced a growing conflict between the commercial pressures of their global success and their creative ambitions.{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=255–256}} They had intended the album, recorded between August and October 1964,{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=167–176}} to continue the format established by ''A Hard Day's Night'' which, unlike their first two LPs, contained only original songs.{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=255–256}} They had nearly exhausted their backlog of songs on the previous album, however, and given the challenges constant international touring posed to their songwriting efforts, Lennon admitted, "Material's becoming a hell of a problem".{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=256}} As a result, six covers from their extensive repertoire were chosen to complete the album. Released in early December, its eight original compositions stood out, demonstrating the growing maturity of the [[Lennon–McCartney]] songwriting partnership.{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=255–256}}

In early 1965, following a dinner with Lennon, Harrison and their wives, Harrison's dentist, John Riley, secretly added [[lysergic acid diethylamide|LSD]] to their coffee.<ref>{{cite news |last=Herbert |first=Ian |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/revealed-dentist-who-introduced-beatles-to-lsd-6231654.html |title=Revealed: Dentist who introduced Beatles to LSD |date=9 September 2006 |work=The Independent|access-date=13 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180513223841/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/revealed-dentist-who-introduced-beatles-to-lsd-6231654.html|archive-date=13 May 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Lennon described the experience: "It was just terrifying, but it was fantastic. I was pretty stunned for a month or two."{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=316}} He and Harrison subsequently became regular users of the drug, joined by Starr on at least one occasion. Harrison's use of [[psychedelic drug]]s encouraged his path to meditation and Hinduism. He commented: "For me, it was like a flash. The first time I had [[Lysergic acid diethylamide|acid]], it just opened up something in my head that was inside of me, and I realised a lot of things. I didn't learn them because I already knew them, but that happened to be the key that opened the door to reveal them. From the moment I had that, I wanted to have it all the time – these thoughts about the yogis and the Himalayas, and [[Ravi Shankar|Ravi]]'s music."<ref>{{Cite book |title=Glazer |year=1977 |pages=41}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.tapatalk.com/groups/strawberry_fields/george-talks-about-lsd-t7757.html |title=George Talks About LSD |website=Strawberry Fields |date=25 September 2008|access-date=12 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412213016/https://www.tapatalk.com/groups/strawberry_fields/george-talks-about-lsd-t7757.html|archive-date=12 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> McCartney was initially reluctant to try it, but eventually did so in late 1966.{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=317}} He became the first Beatle to discuss LSD publicly, declaring in a magazine interview that "it opened my eyes" and "made me a better, more honest, more tolerant member of society".{{sfn|Brown|Gaines|2002|p=228}}

[[File:TrailerUSHelp.jpg|thumb|right|alt=The Beatles performing music in a field. In the foreground, the drums are played by Starr (only the top of his head is visible). Beyond him, the other three stand in a column with their guitars. In the rear, Harrison, head down, strikes a chord. In the front, Lennon smiles and gives a little wave toward camera, holding his pick. Between them, McCartney is jocularly about to choke Lennon.|The US trailer for ''[[Help! (film)|Help!]]'' with (from the rear) Harrison, McCartney, Lennon and (largely obscured) Starr]]

Controversy erupted in June 1965 when Queen [[Elizabeth II]] appointed all four Beatles Members of the [[Order of the British Empire]] (MBE) after Prime Minister [[Harold Wilson]] nominated them for the award.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=556}} In protest – the honour was at that time primarily bestowed upon military veterans and civic leaders – some conservative MBE recipients returned their insignia.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=557}}

In July, the Beatles' second film, ''[[Help! (film)|Help!]]'', was released, again directed by Lester. Described as "mainly a relentless spoof of [[Production of the James Bond films|Bond]]",{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=275}} it inspired a mixed response among both reviewers and the band. McCartney said: "''Help!'' was great but it wasn't our film&nbsp;– we were sort of guest stars. It was fun, but basically, as an idea for a film, it was a bit wrong."{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=274}} The soundtrack was dominated by Lennon, who wrote and sang lead on most of its songs, including the two singles: "[[Help! (song)|Help!]]" and "[[Ticket to Ride (song)|Ticket to Ride]]".{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=276–277}}

The ''[[Help!]]'' album, the group's fifth studio LP, mirrored ''A Hard Day's Night'' by featuring soundtrack songs on side one and additional songs from the same sessions on side two.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1988|p=62}} The LP contained all original material save for two covers, "[[Act Naturally]]" and "[[Dizzy, Miss Lizzy|Dizzy Miss Lizzy]]"; they were the last covers the band would include on an album until ''[[Let It Be (album)|Let It Be]]''{{'s}} brief rendition of the traditional Liverpool folk song "[[Maggie May (folk song)|Maggie Mae]]".{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=276–280}} The band expanded their use of vocal overdubs on ''Help!'' and incorporated classical instruments into some arrangements, including a string quartet on the pop ballad "[[Yesterday (Beatles song)|Yesterday]]".{{sfnm|1a1=Gould|1y=2007|1pp=290–292|2a1=Lewisohn|2y=1988|2pp=59, 62}} Composed and sung by McCartney – none of the other Beatles perform on the recording{{sfn|Lewisohn|1988|p=59}} – "Yesterday" has inspired the most cover versions of any song ever written.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Schaal |first=Eric |date=29 June 2019 |title=Is The Beatles' 'Yesterday' Really the Most-Covered Song of All Time? |url=https://www.cheatsheet.com/entertainment/is-the-beatles-yesterday-really-the-most-covered-song-of-all-time.html/ |access-date=6 January 2020 |website=Cheatsheet |archive-date=7 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507104239/https://www.cheatsheet.com/entertainment/is-the-beatles-yesterday-really-the-most-covered-song-of-all-time.html/ |url-status=live}}</ref> With ''Help!'', the Beatles became the first rock group to be nominated for a [[Grammy Award for Album of the Year]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.newsweek.com/grammy-awards-album-year-winners-steely-dan-426569 |first=Zach |last=Schonfeld |title=The Most Ridiculous 'Album of the Year' Winners in Grammy History |work=[[Newsweek]] |date=15 February 2016|access-date=24 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181108065752/https://www.newsweek.com/grammy-awards-album-year-winners-steely-dan-426569|archive-date=8 November 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Beatles press conference 1965.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|left|alt=The Beatles at a press conference in August 1965|The Beatles at a press conference in [[Minnesota]] in August 1965, shortly after playing at [[Shea Stadium]] in New York]]

The group's third US tour opened with a performance before a world-record crowd of 55,600 at New York's [[Shea Stadium]] on 15 August – "perhaps the most famous of all Beatles' concerts", in Lewisohn's description.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=181}} A further nine successful concerts followed in other American cities. At a show in Atlanta, the Beatles gave one of the first live performances ever to make use of a [[foldback (sound engineering)|foldback]] system of on-stage monitor speakers.<ref>{{cite news |last=Emerson |first=Bo |title=Beatles Atlanta show made history in more ways than one |work=[[The Atlanta Journal-Constitution]] |date=11 August 2009 |url=https://www.accessatlanta.com/news/entertainment/music/beatles-atlanta-show-made-history-in-more-ways-tha/nQyrz/ |access-date=27 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514212710/http://www.accessatlanta.com/news/entertainment/music/beatles-atlanta-show-made-history-in-more-ways-tha/nQyrz/ |archive-date=14 May 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> Towards the end of the tour, they met with [[Elvis Presley]], a foundational musical influence on the band, who invited them to his home in [[Beverly Hills, California|Beverly Hills]].{{sfn|Harry|2000a|pp=882–883}}{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=283–284}} Presley later said the band was an example of a trend of anti-Americanism and drug abuse.{{sfn|The Beatles|2000|p=192}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guralnick |first=Peter |title=Careless Love: The Unmaking of Elvis Presley |publisher=Little, Brown and Co. |year=1999 |pages=419–422}}</ref>

September 1965 saw the launch of an American [[Saturday-morning cartoon]] series, ''[[The Beatles (TV series)|The Beatles]]'', that echoed ''A Hard Day's Night''{{'s}} slapstick antics over its two-year original run.{{sfn|McNeil|1996|p=82}} The series was the first weekly television series to feature animated versions of real, living people.<ref name="Animators">{{cite web |url=https://www.beatlescartoon.com/animators/animators.html |title=Animators |work=beatlescartoon.com|access-date=12 April 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160329194411/http://www.beatlescartoon.com/animators/animators.html|archive-date=29 March 2016}}</ref>

In mid-October, the Beatles entered the recording studio; for the first time when making an album, they had an extended period without other major commitments.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=202}} Until this time, according to George Martin, "we had been making albums rather like a collection of singles. Now we were really beginning to think about albums as a bit of art on their own."{{sfn|Hertsgaard|1995|pp=149–150}} Released in December, ''[[Rubber Soul]]'' was hailed by critics as a major step forward in the maturity and complexity of the band's music.<ref name="Rubber Soul AllMusic">{{cite web |last=Unterberger |first=Richie |author-link=Richie Unterberger |title=''Rubber Soul'' – The Beatles |publisher=[[AllMusic]] |url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/rubber-soul-mw0000192940 |access-date=21 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191013145500/https://www.allmusic.com/album/rubber-soul-mw0000192940 |archive-date=13 October 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Their thematic reach was beginning to expand as they embraced deeper aspects of romance and philosophy, a development that NEMS executive [[Peter Brown (music industry)|Peter Brown]] attributed to the band members' "now habitual use of marijuana".{{sfn|Brown|Gaines|2002|pp=181–182}} Lennon referred to ''Rubber Soul'' as "the pot album"{{sfn|The Beatles|2000|p=194}} and Starr said: "Grass was really influential in a lot of our changes, especially with the writers. And because they were writing different material, we were playing differently."{{sfn|The Beatles|2000|p=194}} After ''Help!''{{'}}s foray into classical music with flutes and strings, Harrison's introduction of a [[sitar]] on "[[Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)]]" marked a further progression outside the traditional boundaries of popular music. As the lyrics grew more artful, fans began to study them for deeper meaning.{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=297–298, 423}}

{{listen
|type=music
|filename=Beatles norwegian wood.ogg
|title="Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)"
|description=Sample of "Norwegian Wood" from ''Rubber Soul'' (1965). Harrison's use of a [[sitar]] on this song is representative of the Beatles' incorporation of unconventional instrumentation into rock music.<ref name="Rubber Soul AllMusic" />
}}
While some of ''Rubber Soul''{{'}}s songs were the product of Lennon and McCartney's collaborative songwriting,{{sfn|Spitz|2005|pp=584–592}} the album also included distinct compositions from each,{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=268, 276, 278–279}} though they continued to share official credit. "[[In My Life]]", of which each later claimed lead authorship, is considered a highlight of the entire Lennon–McCartney catalogue.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=587}} Harrison called ''Rubber Soul'' his "favourite album",{{sfn|The Beatles|2000|p=194}} and Starr referred to it as "the departure record".{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=591}} McCartney has said, "We'd had our cute period, and now it was time to expand."{{sfn|The Beatles|2000|p=197}} However, recording engineer [[Norman Smith (record producer)|Norman Smith]] later stated that the studio sessions revealed signs of growing conflict within the group&nbsp;– "the clash between John and Paul was becoming obvious", he wrote, and "as far as Paul was concerned, George could do no right".{{sfn|Harry|2000b|p=780}}

==== Controversies, ''Revolver'' and final tour ====
Capitol Records, from December 1963 when it began issuing Beatles recordings for the US market, exercised complete control over format,{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=350}} compiling distinct US albums from the band's recordings and issuing songs of their choosing as singles.{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=295–296}}{{refn|group=nb|It was not until ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]'' in 1967 that a Beatles album was released with identical track listings in both the UK and the US.{{sfn|Southall|Perry|2006|p=59}}}} In June 1966, the Capitol LP ''[[Yesterday and Today]]'' caused an uproar with its cover, which portrayed the grinning Beatles dressed in butcher's overalls, accompanied by raw meat and mutilated plastic baby dolls. According to Beatles biographer [[Bill Harry]], it has been incorrectly suggested that this was meant as a satirical response to the way Capitol had "butchered" the US versions of the band's albums.{{sfn|Harry|2000a|p=1187}} Thousands of copies of the LP had a new cover pasted over the original; an unpeeled "first-state" copy fetched $10,500 at a December 2005 auction.<ref>{{cite web |last=Gaffney |first=Dennis |title=The Beatles' "Butcher" Cover |work=[[Antiques Roadshow]] Online |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service]] |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/roadshow/fts/chicago_200302A14.html |date=5 January 2004 |access-date=15 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428010433/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/roadshow/fts/chicago_200302A14.html |archive-date=28 April 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> In England, meanwhile, Harrison met sitar maestro [[Ravi Shankar]], who agreed to train him on the instrument.{{sfn|Lavezzoli|2006|p=176}}

During a tour of the Philippines the month after the ''Yesterday and Today'' furore, the Beatles unintentionally snubbed the nation's first lady, [[Imelda Marcos]], who had expected them to attend a breakfast reception at the [[Malacañang Palace|Presidential Palace]].{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=619}} When presented with the invitation, Epstein politely declined on the band members' behalf, as it had never been his policy to accept such official invitations.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=620}} They soon found that the [[History of the Philippines (1965–1986)|Marcos regime]] was unaccustomed to taking no for an answer. The resulting riots endangered the group and they escaped the country with difficulty.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=623}} Immediately afterwards, the band members visited India for the first time.{{sfn|Lavezzoli|2006|p=177}}

{{quote box|width=25em|quote=We're [[more popular than Jesus]] now; I don't know which will go first – rock 'n' roll or Christianity.|source=– John Lennon, 1966{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=309}}}}

Almost as soon as they returned home, the Beatles faced a fierce backlash from US religious and social conservatives (as well as the [[Ku Klux Klan]]) over a comment Lennon had made in a March interview with British reporter [[Maureen Cleave]].{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=212–213}} "Christianity will go", Lennon had said. "It will vanish and shrink. I needn't argue about that; I'm right and I will be proved right&nbsp;... [[Jesus]] was alright but his [[Disciples (Christianity)|disciples]] were thick and ordinary. It's them twisting it that ruins it for me."{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=307–309}} His comments went virtually unnoticed in England, but when US teenage fan magazine ''Datebook'' printed them five months later, it sparked a controversy with Christians in America's conservative [[Bible Belt]] region.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=212–213}} The [[Holy See|Vatican]] issued a protest, and bans on Beatles records were imposed by Spanish and Dutch stations and South Africa's [[South African Broadcasting Corporation|national broadcasting service]].{{sfn|Norman|2008|p=449}} Epstein accused ''Datebook'' of having taken Lennon's words out of context. At a press conference, Lennon pointed out, "If I'd said television was more popular than Jesus, I might have got away with it."{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=346}} He claimed that he was referring to how other people viewed their success, but at the prompting of reporters, he concluded: "If you want me to apologise, if that will make you happy, then okay, I'm sorry."{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=346}}

{{listen
|type=music
|filename=Beatles eleanor rigby.ogg
|title="Eleanor Rigby"
|description=Sample of "[[Eleanor Rigby]]" from ''Revolver'' (1966). The album involves innovative compositional approaches, arrangements and recording techniques. This song, primarily written by McCartney, prominently features classical strings in a novel fusion of musical styles.
}}
Released in August 1966, a week before the Beatles' final tour, ''[[Revolver (Beatles album)|Revolver]]'' marked another artistic step forward for the group.{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=348}} The album featured sophisticated songwriting, studio experimentation and a greatly expanded repertoire of musical styles, ranging from innovative classical string arrangements to [[psychedelic music|psychedelia]].{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=348}} Abandoning the customary group photograph, its [[Aubrey Beardsley]]-inspired cover – designed by [[Klaus Voormann]], a friend of the band since their Hamburg days – was a monochrome collage and line drawing caricature of the group.{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=348}} The album was preceded by the single "[[Paperback Writer]]", backed by "[[Rain (Beatles song)|Rain]]".{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=350–351}} Short promotional films were made for both songs; described by cultural historian Saul Austerlitz as "among the first true music videos",{{sfn|Austerlitz|2007|p=18}} they aired on ''The Ed Sullivan Show'' and ''[[Top of the Pops]]'' in June.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=221–222}}

Among the experimental songs on ''Revolver'' was "[[Tomorrow Never Knows]]", the lyrics for which Lennon drew from [[Timothy Leary]]'s ''[[The Psychedelic Experience: A Manual Based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead]]''. Its creation involved eight tape decks distributed about the EMI building, each staffed by an engineer or band member, who randomly varied the movement of a [[tape loop]] while Martin created a composite recording by sampling the incoming data.{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=364–366}} McCartney's "[[Eleanor Rigby]]" made prominent use of a [[octet (music)|string octet]]; Gould describes it as "a true hybrid, conforming to no recognisable style or genre of song".{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=350, 402}} Harrison's emergence as a songwriter was reflected in three of his compositions appearing on the record.{{sfn|Schaffner|1978|p=63}} Among these, "[[Taxman]]", which opened the album, marked the first example of the Beatles making a political statement through their music.{{sfn|Turner|2016|p=162}}

[[File:Candlestick Postcard - 01.JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|right|alt=San Francisco's Candlestick Park in the 1960s|San Francisco's [[Candlestick Park]] (pictured in the early 1960s) was the venue for the Beatles' final concert before a paying audience.]]

As preparations were made for a tour of the US, the Beatles knew that their music would hardly be heard. Having originally used [[Vox AC30]] amplifiers, they later acquired more powerful 100-watt amplifiers, specially designed for them by [[Vox (musical equipment)|Vox]], as they moved into larger venues in 1964; however, these were still inadequate. Struggling to compete with the volume of sound generated by screaming fans, the band had grown increasingly bored with the routine of performing live.{{sfn|Harry|2000a|p=1093}} Recognising that their shows were no longer about the music, they decided to make the August tour their last.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=210, 230}}

The band performed none of their new songs on the tour.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=361–365}} In Chris Ingham's description, they were very much "studio creations&nbsp;... and there was no way a four-piece rock 'n' roll group could do them justice, particularly through the desensitising wall of the fans' screams. 'Live Beatles' and 'Studio Beatles' had become entirely different beasts."{{sfn|Ingham|2006|p=44}} The band's concert at San Francisco's [[Candlestick Park]] on 29 August was their last commercial concert.{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=293–295}} It marked the end of four&nbsp;years dominated by almost non-stop touring that included over 1,400 concert appearances internationally.{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=5–6, 249, 281, 347}}

=== 1966–1970: Studio years ===
==== ''Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band'' ====
{{Main|Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band{{!}}''Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band''}}
[[File:Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band.jpg|thumb|right|alt=The album artwork of the Beatles' 1967 album ''Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band''|Front cover of ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]'', "the most famous cover of any music album, and one of the most imitated images in the world"{{sfn|Harry|2000a|p=970}}]]

Freed from the burden of touring, the Beatles embraced an increasingly experimental approach as they recorded ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]'', beginning in late November 1966.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=232}} According to engineer [[Geoff Emerick]], the album's recording took over 700 hours.{{sfn|Emerick|Massey|2006|p=190}} He recalled the band's insistence "that everything on ''Sgt. Pepper'' had to be different. We had microphones right down in the bells of brass instruments and headphones turned into microphones attached to violins. We used giant primitive oscillators to vary the speed of instruments and vocals and we had tapes chopped to pieces and stuck together upside down and the wrong way around."{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=387–388}} Parts of "[[A Day in the Life]]" featured a 40-piece orchestra.{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=387–388}} The sessions initially yielded the non-album [[double A-side]] single "[[Strawberry Fields Forever]]"/"[[Penny Lane]]" in February 1967;{{sfn|MacDonald|2005|p=221}} the ''Sgt. Pepper'' LP followed with a rush-release in May.{{sfn|Everett|1999|p=123}} The musical complexity of the records, created using relatively primitive [[Multitrack recording|four-track]] recording technology, astounded contemporary artists.{{sfn|Harry|2000a|p=970}} Among music critics, acclaim for the album was virtually universal.{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=420–425}} Gould writes:

{{blockquote|The overwhelming consensus is that the Beatles had created a popular masterpiece: a rich, sustained, and overflowing work of collaborative genius whose bold ambition and startling originality dramatically enlarged the possibilities and raised the expectations of what the experience of listening to popular music on record could be. On the basis of this perception, ''Sgt. Pepper'' became the catalyst for an explosion of mass enthusiasm for album-formatted rock that would revolutionise both the aesthetics and the economics of the record business in ways that far outstripped the earlier pop explosions triggered by the Elvis phenomenon of 1956 and the Beatlemania phenomenon of 1963.{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=418}}}}

In the wake of ''Sgt. Pepper'', the underground and mainstream press widely publicised the Beatles as leaders of youth culture, as well as "lifestyle revolutionaries".{{sfn|Frontani|2007|p=157}} The album was the first major pop/rock LP to include its complete lyrics, which appeared on the back cover.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=236}}{{sfn|Inglis|2008|p=96}} Those lyrics were the subject of critical analysis; for instance, in late 1967 the album was the subject of a scholarly inquiry by American literary critic and professor of English [[Richard Poirier]], who observed that his students were "listening to the group's music with a degree of engagement that he, as a teacher of literature, could only envy".{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=423–425}}{{refn|group=nb|Poirier identified what he termed its "mixed allusiveness": "It's unwise ever to assume that they're doing only one thing or expressing themselves in only one style&nbsp;... one kind of feeling about a subject isn't enough&nbsp;... any single induced feeling must often exist within the context of seemingly contradictory alternatives."{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=423–425}} McCartney said at the time: "We write songs. We know what we mean by them. But in a week someone else says something about it, and you can't deny it.&nbsp;... You put your own meaning at your own level to our songs."{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=423–425}}}} The elaborate cover also attracted considerable interest and study.{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=394–395}} A collage designed by [[pop art]]ists [[Peter Blake (artist)|Peter Blake]] and [[Jann Haworth]], it depicted the group as the fictional band referred to in the album's [[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (song)|title track]]{{sfn|MacDonald|2005|p=312}} standing in front of [[List of images on the cover of Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band|a crowd of famous people]].{{sfn|The Beatles|2000|p=248}} The heavy moustaches worn by the group reflected the growing influence of the [[hippie]] movement,{{sfn|The Beatles|2000|p=236}} while cultural historian Jonathan Harris describes their "brightly coloured parodies of military uniforms" as a knowingly "anti-authoritarian and anti-establishment" display.{{sfn|Harris|2005|pp=12–13}}

''Sgt. Pepper'' topped the UK charts for 23 consecutive weeks, with a further four weeks at number one in the period through to February 1968.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/search/albums/sgt-pepper's-lonely-hearts-club-band/ |title=Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, The Beatles" > "Chart Facts |publisher=[[Official Charts Company]]|access-date=11 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180820102815/http://www.officialcharts.com/search/albums/sgt-pepper%27s-lonely-hearts-club-band/|archive-date=20 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> With 2.5&nbsp;million copies sold within three months of its release,{{sfn|Frontani|2007|p=147}} ''Sgt. Pepper''{{'}}s initial commercial success exceeded that of all previous Beatles albums.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=697}} It was the first rock album to win the [[Grammy Award for Album of the Year]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Grammy Award Nominees 1968 |url=https://www.awardsandshows.com/features/grammy-awards-1968-218.html| access-date=27 February 2024| archive-date=7 December 2023| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231207013017/https://www.awardsandshows.com/features/grammy-awards-1968-218.html| url-status=live}}</ref> It sustained its immense popularity into the 21st century while breaking numerous sales records.<ref>{{cite news |last=Ghoshal |first=Somak |date=21 June 2017 |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.in/2017/06/21/on-world-music-day-a-salute-to-these-guys-who-made-history-50-y_a_22494609/ |title=On World Music Day, A Salute To These Guys Who Made History 50 Years Ago |newspaper=[[HuffPost]]|access-date=3 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180927122027/https://www.huffingtonpost.in/2017/06/21/on-world-music-day-a-salute-to-these-guys-who-made-history-50-y_a_22494609/|archive-date=27 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== ''Magical Mystery Tour'' and ''Yellow Submarine'' ====
{{Main|Magical Mystery Tour (film){{!}}''Magical Mystery Tour'' (film)|Yellow Submarine (film){{!}}''Yellow Submarine'' (film)}}
Two Beatles film projects were conceived within weeks of completing ''Sgt. Pepper'': ''[[Magical Mystery Tour (film)|Magical Mystery Tour]]'', a one-hour television film, and ''[[Yellow Submarine (film)|Yellow Submarine]]'', an animated feature-length film produced by [[United Artists]].{{sfn|Lewisohn|1988|pp=41, 110–111, 122}} The group began recording music for the former in late April 1967, but the project then lay dormant as they focused on recording songs for the latter.{{sfn|Miles|2001|pp=276–77}} On 25 June, the Beatles performed their forthcoming single "[[All You Need Is Love]]" to an estimated 350&nbsp;million viewers on ''[[Our World (1967 TV program)|Our World]]'', the first live global television link.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=237, 259–260}} Released a week later, during the [[Summer of Love]], the song was adopted as a [[flower power]] anthem.{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=428–429}} The Beatles' use of psychedelic drugs was at its height during that summer.{{sfn|Everett|1999|p=129}} In July and August, the group pursued interests related to similar utopian-based ideology, including a week-long investigation into the possibility of starting an island-based [[Intentional community|commune]] off the coast of Greece.{{sfn|Womack|2007|p=197}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Knott |first=Jonathan |date=9 September 2023 |title='Used as propaganda': the Beatles' Greek island plans and international politics |journal=Journal of Beatles Studies |language=en |volume=2023 |issue=Spring/Autumn |pages=109–141 |doi=10.3828/jbs.2023.7 |s2cid=261671152 |issn=2754-7019 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

On 24 August, the group were introduced to [[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]] in London. The next day, they travelled to [[Bangor, Gwynedd|Bangor]] for his [[Transcendental Meditation]] retreat. On 27 August, their manager's assistant, Peter Brown, phoned to inform them that Epstein had died.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|pp=709, 713–719}} The coroner ruled the death an accidental [[Bromoureide|carbitol]] overdose, although it was widely rumoured to be a suicide.{{sfn|Brown|Gaines|2002|p=249}}{{refn|group=nb|Epstein had been in a fragile emotional state, stressed by personal troubles. It was speculated that he was concerned that the band might not renew his management contract, due to expire in October, over discontent with his supervision of business matters, particularly regarding [[Seltaeb]], the company that handled their US merchandising rights.{{sfn|Brown|Gaines|2002|pp=227–228}}}} His death left the group disoriented and fearful about the future.{{sfn|The Beatles|2000|p=268}} Lennon recalled: "We collapsed. I knew that we were in trouble then. I didn't really have any misconceptions about our ability to do anything other than play music, and I was scared. I thought, 'We've fuckin' had it now.{{' "}}{{sfn|Norman|2008|p=508}} Harrison's then-wife [[Pattie Boyd]] remembered that "Paul and George were in complete shock. I don't think it could have been worse if they had heard that their own fathers had dropped dead."{{sfn|Boyd|2008|pp=106–107}} During a band meeting in September, McCartney recommended that the band proceed with ''Magical Mystery Tour''.{{sfn|Miles|2001|pp=276–77}}

The [[Magical Mystery Tour|''Magical Mystery Tour'' soundtrack]] was released in the UK as a six-track double [[extended play]] (EP) in early December 1967.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=350}}{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=452}} It was the first example of a double EP in the UK.{{sfn|Neaverson|1997|p=53}}{{sfn|Larkin|2006|p=488}} The record carried on the psychedelic vein of ''Sgt. Pepper'',<ref>{{cite web |last=Unterberger |first=Richie |title=''Magical Mystery Tour'' – The Beatles |publisher=[[AllMusic]] |url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/magical-mystery-tour-mw0000651227 |access-date=21 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530212729/http://www.allmusic.com/album/magical-mystery-tour-mw0000651227 |archive-date=30 May 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> though in line with the band's wishes, the packaging reinforced the idea that the release was a film soundtrack rather than a follow-up to ''Sgt. Pepper''.{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=452}} In the US, the soundtrack appeared as an identically titled LP that also included five tracks from the band's recent singles.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=351}} In its first three weeks, the album set a record for the highest initial sales of any Capitol LP and is the only Capitol compilation later to be adopted in the band's official canon of studio albums.{{sfn|Harry|2000a|p=699}}

''Magical Mystery Tour'' first aired on [[Boxing Day]] to an audience of approximately 15&nbsp;million.{{sfn|Schaffner|1978|p=90}} Largely directed by McCartney, the film was the band's first critical failure in the UK.{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=368–69}} It was dismissed as "blatant rubbish" by the ''[[Daily Express]]'', the ''[[Daily Mail]]'' called it "a colossal conceit" and ''[[The Guardian]]'' labelled the film "a kind of fantasy morality play about the grossness and warmth and stupidity of the audience".{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=455–456}} Gould describes it as "a great deal of raw footage showing a group of people getting on, getting off, and riding on a bus".{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=455–456}} Although the viewership figures were respectable, its slating in the press led US television networks to lose interest in broadcasting the film.{{sfn|Harry|2000a|p=703}}

The group were less involved with ''Yellow Submarine'', which featured the band appearing as themselves for only a short live-action segment.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=276}} Premiering in July 1968, the film featured cartoon versions of the band members and a soundtrack with eleven of their songs, including four unreleased studio recordings that made their debut in the film.{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=485}} Critics praised the film for its music, humour and innovative visual style.{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=487–88, 505–506}} A [[Yellow Submarine (album)|soundtrack LP]] was issued seven months later; it contained those four new songs, the title track (already issued on ''Revolver''), "All You Need Is Love" (already issued as a single and on the US ''Magical Mystery Tour'' LP) and seven instrumental pieces composed by Martin.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=304, 350}}

==== India retreat, Apple Corps and the White Album ====
{{Main|Beatles in India|Apple Corps|The Beatles (album){{!}}''The Beatles'' (album)}}
In February 1968, the Beatles travelled to Maharishi Mahesh Yogi's [[ashram]] in [[Rishikesh]], India, to take part in a three-month meditation "Guide Course". Their [[The Beatles in India|time in India]] marked one of the band's most prolific periods, yielding numerous songs, including a majority of those on their next album.{{sfn|Harry|2000a|pp=108–109}} However, Starr left after only ten days, unable to stomach the food, and McCartney eventually grew bored and departed a month later.{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=463–468}} For Lennon and Harrison, creativity turned to question when an electronics technician known as [[Magic Alex]] suggested that the Maharishi was attempting to manipulate them.{{sfn|Harry|2000a|pp=705–706}} When he alleged that the Maharishi had made sexual advances to women attendees, a persuaded Lennon left abruptly just two months into the course, bringing an unconvinced Harrison and the remainder of the group's entourage with him.{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=463–468}} In anger, Lennon wrote a scathing song titled "Maharishi", renamed "[[Sexy Sadie]]" to avoid potential legal issues. McCartney said, "We made a mistake. We thought there was more to him than there was."{{sfn|Harry|2000a|pp=705–706}}

In May, Lennon and McCartney travelled to New York for the public unveiling of the Beatles' new business venture, [[Apple Corps]].{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=282}} It was initially formed several months earlier as part of a plan to create a tax-effective business structure, but the band then desired to extend the corporation to other pursuits, including record distribution, peace activism and education.{{sfn|Doggett|2011|pp=20, 26}} McCartney described Apple as "rather like a Western communism".{{sfn|Doggett|2011|p=26}} The enterprise drained the group financially with a series of unsuccessful projects{{sfn|MacDonald|2005|pp=280–281}} handled largely by members of the Beatles' entourage, who were given their jobs regardless of talent and experience.{{sfn|Doggett|2011|p=22}} Among its numerous subsidiaries were [[Apple Electronics]], established to foster technological innovations with Magic Alex at the head, and Apple Retailing, which opened the short-lived [[Apple Boutique]] in London.{{sfn|Doggett|2011|pp=20, 22, 25, 35}} Harrison later said, "Basically, it was chaos&nbsp;... John and Paul got carried away with the idea and blew millions, and Ringo and I just had to go along with it."{{sfn|Doggett|2011|p=26}}

[[File:TheBeatles68LP.jpg|thumb|alt=The album artwork of the Beatles' self-titled 1968 album, also known as "the White Album"|''The Beatles'', known as "the White Album" for its minimalist cover, conceived by pop artist [[Richard Hamilton (artist)|Richard Hamilton]] "in direct contrast to ''Sgt. Pepper''", while also suggesting a "clean slate".{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=510–511}}]]

From late May to mid-October 1968, the group recorded what became ''[[The Beatles (album)|The Beatles]]'', a double LP commonly known as "the White Album" for its virtually featureless cover.{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=510}} During this time, relations between the members grew openly divisive.{{sfn|MacDonald|2005|p=310}} Starr quit for two weeks, leaving his bandmates to record "[[Back in the U.S.S.R.]]" and "[[Dear Prudence]]" as a trio, with McCartney filling in on drums.{{sfn|Winn|2009|pp=205–207}} Lennon had lost interest in collaborating with McCartney,{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=513, 516}} whose contribution "[[Ob-La-Di, Ob-La-Da]]" he scorned as "granny music shit".{{sfn|Emerick|Massey|2006|p=246}} Tensions were further aggravated by Lennon's romantic preoccupation with [[avant-garde]] artist [[Yoko Ono]], whom he insisted on bringing to the sessions despite the group's well-established understanding that girlfriends were not allowed in the studio.{{sfn|Harry|2000b|p=103}} McCartney has recalled that the album "wasn't a pleasant one to make".{{sfn|The Beatles|2000|p=310}} He and Lennon identified the sessions as the start of the band's break-up.{{sfn|The Beatles|2000|p=237}}{{sfn|Harry|2000b|p=102}}

With the record, the band executed a wider range of musical styles{{sfn|Miles|2001|p=315}} and broke with their recent tradition of incorporating several musical styles in one song by keeping each piece of music consistently faithful to a select genre.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Faust |first1=Edwin |title=On Second Thought: The Beatles – The Beatles |url=http://stylusmagazine.com/articles/on_second_thought/the-beatles-the-beatles.htm |website=Stylus Magazine|access-date=18 December 2016 |date=1 September 2003|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223025212/http://stylusmagazine.com/articles/on_second_thought/the-beatles-the-beatles.htm|archive-date=23 December 2008}}</ref> During the sessions, the group upgraded to an eight-track tape console, which made it easier for them to layer tracks piecemeal, while the members often recorded independently of each other, affording the album a reputation as a collection of solo recordings rather than a unified group effort.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1988|pp=137, 146, 150, 152}} Describing the double album, Lennon later said: "Every track is an individual track; there isn't any Beatle music on it. [It's] John and the band, Paul and the band, George and the band."{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=509}} The sessions also produced the Beatles' longest song yet, "[[Hey Jude]]", released in August as a non-album single with "[[Revolution (Beatles song)|Revolution]]".{{sfn|Lewisohn|1988|p=152}}

Issued in November, the White Album was the band's first [[Apple Records]] album release, although EMI continued to own their recordings.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=278}} The record attracted more than 2&nbsp;million advance orders, selling nearly 4&nbsp;million copies in the US in little over a month, and its tracks dominated the playlists of American radio stations.{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=528}} Its lyrical content was the focus of much analysis by the counterculture.{{sfn|MacDonald|2005|pp=311–313}} Despite its popularity, reviewers were largely confused by the album's content and it failed to inspire the level of critical writing that ''Sgt. Pepper'' had.{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=528}}

==== ''Abbey Road'', ''Let It Be'' and separation ====
{{See also|Break-up of the Beatles}}
Although ''[[Let It Be (album)|Let It Be]]'' was the Beatles' final album release, it was largely recorded before ''[[Abbey Road]]''. The project's impetus came from an idea Martin attributes to McCartney, who suggested they "record an album of new material and rehearse it, then perform it before a live audience for the very first time – on record and on film".{{sfn|Harry|2000b|p=539}} Originally intended for a one-hour television programme to be called ''Beatles at Work'', in the event much of the album's content came from studio work beginning in January 1969, many hours of which were captured on film by director [[Michael Lindsay-Hogg]].{{sfn|Harry|2000b|p=539}}{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=306–307}} Martin said that the project was "not at all a happy recording experience. It was a time when relations between the Beatles were at their lowest ebb."{{sfn|Harry|2000b|p=539}} Lennon described the largely impromptu sessions as "hell&nbsp;... the most miserable&nbsp;... on Earth", and Harrison, "the low of all-time".{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=310}} Irritated by McCartney and Lennon, Harrison walked out for five days. Upon returning, he threatened to leave the band unless they "abandon[ed] all talk of live performance" and instead focused on finishing a new album, initially titled ''Get Back'', using songs recorded for the TV special.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=307}} He also demanded they cease work at [[Twickenham Film Studios]], where the sessions had begun, and relocate to the newly finished [[Apple Studios (recording studio)|Apple Studio]]. His bandmates agreed and it was decided to salvage the footage shot for the TV production for use in a feature film.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=306–307, 309}}

[[File:Billy Preston perforning in 1971.jpg|alt=American musician Billy Preston in 1971|thumb|left|The American soul musician [[Billy Preston]] (pictured in 1971) was, for a short time, considered a [[fifth Beatle]] during the ''Get Back'' sessions.]]

To alleviate tensions within the band and improve the quality of their live sound, Harrison invited keyboardist [[Billy Preston]] to participate in the last nine days of sessions.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=309–314}} Preston received label billing on the "[[Get Back]]" single – the only musician ever to receive that acknowledgment on an official Beatles release.{{sfn|Harry|2000a|pp=451, 660}} After the rehearsals, the band could not agree on a location to film a concert, rejecting several ideas, including a boat at sea, a lunatic asylum, the Libyan desert and the [[Colosseum]].{{sfn|Harry|2000b|p=539}} Ultimately, what would be their [[The Beatles' rooftop concert|final live performance]] was filmed on the rooftop of the Apple Corps building at 3 [[Savile Row]], London, on 30 January 1969.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=307–308, 312}} Five weeks later, engineer [[Glyn Johns]], whom Lewisohn describes as ''Get Back''{{'}}s "uncredited producer", began work assembling an album, given "free rein" as the band "all but washed their hands of the entire project".{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=309, 316–323}}

[[File:3 Savile Row.jpg|thumb|upright=.75|alt=A terrace house with four floors and an attic. It is red brick, with a slate roof, and the ground floor rendered in imitation of stone and painted white. Each upper floor has four sash windows, divided into small panes. The door, with a canopy over it, occupies the place of the second window from the left on the ground floor.|Apple Corps building at 3 Savile Row, site of the [[The Beatles' rooftop concert|''Let It Be'' rooftop concert]]]]

New strains developed between the band members regarding the appointment of a financial adviser, the need for which had become evident without Epstein to manage business affairs. Lennon, Harrison and Starr favoured [[Allen Klein]], who had managed [[the Rolling Stones]] and [[Sam Cooke]];{{sfn|Harry|2000a|p=612}} McCartney wanted [[Lee Eastman|Lee]] and John Eastman – father and brother, respectively, of [[Linda McCartney|Linda Eastman]],{{sfn|Doggett|2011|pp=70, 132}} whom McCartney married on 12 March.{{sfn|Miles|2001|p=336}} Agreement could not be reached, so both Klein and the Eastmans were temporarily appointed: Klein as the Beatles' business manager and the Eastmans as their lawyers.{{sfn|Doggett|2011|pp=71–72}}{{sfn|Goodman|2015|pp=164–166}} Further conflict ensued, however, and financial opportunities were lost.{{sfn|Harry|2000a|p=612}} On 8 May, Klein was named sole manager of the band,{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=322}} the Eastmans having previously been dismissed as the Beatles' lawyers. McCartney refused to sign the management contract with Klein, but he was out-voted by the other Beatles.{{sfn|Goodman|2015|pp=174–175}}

Martin stated that he was surprised when McCartney asked him to produce another album, as the ''Get Back'' sessions had been "a miserable experience" and he had "thought it was the end of the road for all of us".{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=560}} The primary recording sessions for ''Abbey Road'' began on 2 July.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=324}} Lennon, who rejected Martin's proposed format of a "continuously moving piece of music", wanted his and McCartney's songs to occupy separate sides of the album.{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=563}} The eventual format, with individually composed songs on the first side and the second consisting largely of a [[List of musical medleys|medley]], was McCartney's suggested compromise.{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=563}} Emerick noted that the replacement of the studio's [[Vacuum tube|valve]]-based mixing console with a transistorised one yielded a less punchy sound, leaving the group frustrated at the thinner tone and lack of impact and contributing to its "kinder, gentler" feel relative to their previous albums.{{sfn|Emerick|Massey|2006|pp=277–278}}

On 4 July, the first solo single by a Beatle was released: Lennon's "[[Give Peace a Chance]]", credited to the [[Plastic Ono Band]]. The completion and mixing of "[[I Want You (She's So Heavy)]]" on 20 August was the last occasion on which all four Beatles were together in the same studio.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1988|p=191}} On 8 September, while Starr was in hospital, the other band members met to discuss recording a new album. They considered a different approach to songwriting by ending the [[Lennon–McCartney]] pretence and having four compositions apiece from Lennon, McCartney and Harrison, with two from Starr and a lead single around Christmas.<ref name="8sep69">{{cite web |last=Williams |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Williams (journalist) |title=This tape rewrites everything we knew about the Beatles |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2019/sep/11/the-beatles-break-up-mark-lewisohn-abbey-road-hornsey-road |url-status=live |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=11 September 2019 |access-date=12 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190911235132/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2019/sep/11/the-beatles-break-up-mark-lewisohn-abbey-road-hornsey-road |archive-date=11 September 2019}}</ref> On 20 September, Lennon announced his departure to the rest of the group but agreed to withhold a public announcement to avoid undermining sales of the forthcoming album.{{sfn|Norman|2008|pp=622–624}}

Released on 26 September, ''Abbey Road'' sold four&nbsp;million copies within three months and topped the UK charts for a total of seventeen weeks.{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=593}} Its second track, the ballad "[[Something (Beatles song)|Something]]", was issued as a single – the only Harrison composition that appeared as a Beatles A-side.{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=553}} ''Abbey Road'' received mixed reviews, although the medley met with general acclaim.{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=593}} Unterberger considers it "a fitting swan song for the group", containing "some of the greatest harmonies to be heard on any rock record".<ref>{{cite web |last=Unterberger |first=Richie |title=''Abbey Road'' – The Beatles |publisher=[[AllMusic]] |url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/abbey-road-mw0000192938 |access-date=21 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529232715/https://www.allmusic.com/album/abbey-road-mw0000192938 |archive-date=29 May 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Musicologist]] and author [[Ian MacDonald]] calls the album "erratic and often hollow", despite the "semblance of unity and coherence" offered by the medley.{{sfn|MacDonald|2005|p=367}} Martin singled it out as his favourite Beatles album; Lennon said it was "competent" but had "no life in it".{{sfn|Emerick|Massey|2006|pp=277–278}}

For the still unfinished ''Get Back'' album, one last song, Harrison's "[[I Me Mine]]", was recorded on 3 January 1970. Lennon, in Denmark at the time, did not participate.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=342}} In March, rejecting the work Johns had done on the project, now retitled ''Let It Be'', Klein gave the session tapes to American producer [[Phil Spector]], who had recently produced Lennon's solo single "[[Instant Karma!]]"{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=342–343}} In addition to remixing the material, Spector edited, spliced and overdubbed several of the recordings that had been intended as "live". McCartney was unhappy with the producer's approach and particularly dissatisfied with the lavish orchestration on "[[The Long and Winding Road]]", which involved a fourteen-voice choir and 36-piece instrumental ensemble.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=349}} McCartney's demands that the alterations to the song be reverted were ignored,{{sfn|Harry|2000a|p=682}} and he publicly announced his departure from the band on 10 April, a week before the release of his first [[McCartney (album)|self-titled solo album]].{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=349}}{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=853}}

On 8 May 1970, ''Let It Be'' was released. Its accompanying single, "The Long and Winding Road", was expected to be the Beatles' last; it was released in the US, but not in the UK.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|pp=350–351}} The ''[[Let It Be (1970 film)|Let It Be]]'' documentary film followed later that month and would win the 1970 Academy Award for [[Academy Award for Best Original Score#1970s|Best Original Song Score]].{{sfn|Southall|Perry|2006|p=96}} ''[[Sunday Telegraph]]'' critic [[Penelope Gilliatt]] called it "a very bad film and a touching one&nbsp;... about the breaking apart of this reassuring, geometrically perfect, once apparently ageless family of siblings".{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=600}} Several reviewers stated that some of the performances in the film sounded better than their analogous album tracks.{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=601}} Describing ''Let It Be'' as the "only Beatles album to occasion negative, even hostile reviews", Unterberger calls it "on the whole underrated"; he singles out "some good moments of straight hard rock in '[[I've Got a Feeling]]' and '[[Dig a Pony]]'" and praises "[[Let It Be (song)|Let It Be]]", "Get Back" and "the folky '[[Two of Us (Beatles song)|Two of Us]]', with John and Paul harmonising together".<ref>{{cite web |last=Unterberger |first=Richie |title=''Let It Be'' – The Beatles |publisher=AllMusic |url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/let-it-be-mw0000192939 |access-date=21 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130806194702/http://www.allmusic.com/album/let-it-be-mw0000192939 |archive-date=6 August 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>

McCartney filed suit for the dissolution of the Beatles' contractual partnership on 31 December 1970.{{sfn|Harry|2002|p=139}} Legal disputes continued long after their break-up and the dissolution was not formalised until 29 December 1974,{{sfn|Harry|2002|p=150}} when Lennon signed the paperwork terminating the partnership while on vacation with his family at [[Walt Disney World]] Resort in Florida.{{sfn|Pang|2008|p=118}}

=== After the breakup ===
{{See also|Collaborations between ex-Beatles}}

==== 1970s ====
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Lennon, McCartney, Harrison and Starr all released solo albums in 1970. Their solo records sometimes involved one or more of the other members;{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=601–604}} Starr's ''[[Ringo (album)|Ringo]]'' (1973) was the only album to include compositions and performances by all four ex-Beatles, albeit on separate songs. With Starr's participation, Harrison staged [[the Concert for Bangladesh]] in New York City in August 1971.{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=603–604}} Other than an unreleased jam session in 1974, later [[Bootleg recording|bootlegged]] as ''[[A Toot and a Snore in '74]]'', Lennon and McCartney never recorded together again.{{sfn|Sandford|2006|pp=227–229}}

Two double-LP sets of the Beatles' greatest hits, compiled by Klein, ''[[1962–1966]]'' and ''[[1967–1970]]'', were released in 1973, at first under the Apple Records imprint.{{sfn|Ingham|2006|p=69}} Commonly known as the "Red Album" and "Blue Album", respectively, each has earned a [[Music recording certification|Multi-Platinum certification]] in the US and a Platinum certification in the UK.<ref name="RIAAb">{{cite web |publisher=Recording Industry Association of America |url=https://www.riaa.com/gold-platinum/?tab_active=default-award&ar=The+Beatles&ti=&lab=&genre=&format=&date_option=release&from=&to=&award=&type=&category=&adv=SEARCH#search_section |title=Gold & Platinum Artist Tallies |access-date=16 February 2019 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190216002911/https://www.riaa.com/gold-platinum/?tab_active=default-award&ar=The+Beatles&ti=&lab=&genre=&format=&date_option=release&from=&to=&award=&type=&category=&adv=SEARCH |archive-date=16 February 2019}}</ref><ref name="BPI2009">{{cite web |work=[[British Phonographic Industry]] |title=Certified Awards Search |url=https://www.bpi.co.uk/certifiedawards/search.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115055129/http://www.bpi.co.uk/certifiedawards/search.aspx |archive-date=15 January 2013 |access-date=6 October 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Between 1976 and 1982, EMI/Capitol released a wave of compilation albums without input from the ex-Beatles, starting with the double-disc compilation ''[[Rock 'n' Roll Music (album)|Rock 'n' Roll Music]]''.{{sfn|Southall|Perry|2006|p=109}} The only one to feature previously unreleased material was ''[[The Beatles at the Hollywood Bowl]]'' (1977); the first officially issued concert recordings by the group, it contained selections from two shows they played during their 1964 and 1965 US tours.{{sfn|Ingham|2006|pp=66, 69}}{{refn|group=nb|The band unsuccessfully attempted to block the 1977 release of ''[[Live! at the Star-Club in Hamburg, Germany; 1962]]''. The independently issued album compiled recordings made during the group's [[The Beatles in Hamburg|Hamburg residency]], taped on a basic recording machine using only one microphone.{{sfn|Harry|2000a|pp=124–126}}}}

The music and enduring fame of the Beatles were commercially exploited in various other ways, again often outside their creative control. In April 1974, the musical ''[[John, Paul, George, Ringo ... and Bert]]'', written by [[Willy Russell]] and featuring singer [[Barbara Dickson]], opened in London. It included, with permission from Northern Songs, eleven Lennon–McCartney compositions and one by Harrison, "[[Here Comes the Sun]]". Displeased with the production's use of his song, Harrison withdrew his permission to use it.{{sfn|Southall|Perry|2006|pp=109–110}} Later that year, the off-Broadway musical ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band on the Road]]'' opened.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,945312,00.html |title=The Theater: Contagious Vulgarity |date=2 December 1974 |magazine=[[TIME (magazine)|Time]]|access-date=27 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016041739/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,945312,00.html|archive-date=16 October 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[All This and World War II]]'' (1976) was an unorthodox nonfiction film that combined newsreel footage with covers of Beatles songs by performers ranging from [[Elton John]] and [[Keith Moon]] to the [[London Symphony Orchestra]].{{sfn|Rodriguez|2010|pp=306–307}} The Broadway musical ''[[Beatlemania (musical)|Beatlemania]]'', an unauthorised nostalgia revue, opened in early 1977 and proved popular, spinning off five separate touring productions.{{sfn|Ingham|2006|pp=66–67}} In 1979, the band sued the producers, settling for several million dollars in damages.{{sfn|Ingham|2006|pp=66–67}} ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (film)|Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]'' (1978), a musical film starring the [[Bee Gees]] and [[Peter Frampton]], was a commercial failure and an "artistic fiasco", according to Ingham.{{sfn|Ingham|2006|p=66}}

Accompanying the wave of Beatles nostalgia and persistent reunion rumours in the US during the 1970s, several entrepreneurs made public offers to the Beatles for a reunion concert.{{sfn|Schaffner|1978|pp=169–72}} Promoter Bill Sargent first offered the Beatles $10&nbsp;million for a reunion concert in 1974. He raised his offer to $30&nbsp;million in January 1976 and then to $50&nbsp;million the following month.<ref>{{cite news |first=Peter |last=Brennan |title=$150m Beatles blitz all set to blast U.S. again |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/san-antonio-express-150m-beatles-blitz/135439616 |newspaper=[[San Antonio Express]] |date=9 May 1976 |access-date=19 November 2023 |archive-date=19 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231119163019/https://www.newspapers.com/article/san-antonio-express-150m-beatles-blitz/135439616/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Cliff |last=Radel |title=Capitol Album May Fuel Beatles Revival |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-cincinnati-enquirer-capitol-album-ma/135439894/ |newspaper=[[The Cincinnati Enquirer]] |date=20 June 1976 |access-date=19 November 2023 |archive-date=19 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231119163028/https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-cincinnati-enquirer-capitol-album-ma/135439894/ |url-status=live}}</ref> On 24 April 1976, during a broadcast of ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'', producer [[Lorne Michaels]] jokingly offered the Beatles $3,000 to reunite on the show. Lennon and McCartney were watching the live broadcast at Lennon's apartment at [[the Dakota]] in New York, which was within driving distance of the [[Studio 8H|NBC studio]] where the show was being broadcast. The former bandmates briefly entertained the idea of going to the studio and surprising Michaels by accepting his offer, but decided not to.{{sfn|Doggett|2011|p=155}}

==== 1980s ====
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In December 1980, Lennon was [[murder of John Lennon|shot and killed]] outside his New York City apartment by [[Mark David Chapman]], an American Beatles fan. Harrison rewrote the lyrics of his song "[[All Those Years Ago]]" in Lennon's honour. With Starr on drums and McCartney and his wife, [[Linda McCartney|Linda]], contributing backing vocals, the song was released as a single in May 1981.{{sfn|Badman|1999|p=284}} McCartney's own tribute, "[[Here Today (Paul McCartney song)|Here Today]]", appeared on his ''[[Tug of War (Paul McCartney album)|Tug of War]]'' album in April 1982.{{sfn|Harry|2002|pp=412–413}} In 1984, Starr co-starred in McCartney's film ''[[Give My Regards to Broad Street (film)|Give My Regards to Broad Street]]'',<ref>Snider, Eric (19 September 2012) [https://www.mtv.com/news/2769688/give-my-regards-to-broad-street/ "Eric's Bad Movies: Give My Regards to Broad Street (1984)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211226064113/https://www.mtv.com/news/2769688/give-my-regards-to-broad-street/ |date=26 December 2021 }} ''MTV.com''. Retrieved 26 December 2021.</ref> and played with McCartney on several of the songs on the [[Give My Regards to Broad Street|soundtrack]].<ref>Loder, Kurt (17 January 1985) [https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-album-reviews/give-my-regards-to-broad-street-sdtk-102267/ "Give My Regards to Broad Street (Soundtrack)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211226064114/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-album-reviews/give-my-regards-to-broad-street-sdtk-102267/ |date=26 December 2021 }} ''Rolling Stone''. Retrieved 26 December 2021.</ref> In 1987, Harrison's ''[[Cloud Nine (George Harrison album)|Cloud Nine]]'' album included "[[When We Was Fab]]", a song about the Beatlemania era.{{sfn|Doggett|2009|p=292}}

When the Beatles' studio albums were released on CD by EMI and Apple Corps in 1987, their catalogue was standardised throughout the world, establishing a canon of the twelve original studio LPs as issued in the UK plus the US LP version of ''Magical Mystery Tour''.<ref name="EMI 2009" /> All the remaining material from the singles and EPs that had not appeared on these thirteen studio albums was gathered on the two-volume compilation ''[[Past Masters]]'' (1988). Except for the ''Red'' and ''Blue'' albums, EMI deleted all its other Beatles compilations – including the ''Hollywood Bowl'' record – from its catalogue.{{sfn|Ingham|2006|pp=66, 69}}

In 1988, the Beatles were inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]], their first year of eligibility. Harrison and Starr attended the ceremony with Lennon's widow, Yoko Ono, and his two sons, [[Julian Lennon|Julian]] and [[Sean Lennon|Sean]].<ref name="R&R HoF">{{cite web |publisher=[[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] |title=Inductees: The Beatles |url=https://www.rockhall.com/inductees/beatles |access-date=14 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827150207/https://www.rockhall.com/inductees/beatles |archive-date=27 August 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Harry|2002|p=753}} McCartney declined to attend, citing unresolved "business differences" that would make him "feel like a complete hypocrite waving and smiling with them at a fake reunion".{{sfn|Harry|2002|p=753}} The following year, EMI/Capitol settled a decade-long lawsuit filed by the band over royalties, clearing the way to commercially package previously unreleased material.<ref>{{cite news |last=Kozinn |first=Allan |author-link=Allan Kozinn |title=Beatles and Record Label Reach Pact and End Suit |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=10 November 1989 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/11/10/arts/beatles-and-record-label-reach-pact-and-end-suit.html |access-date=27 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110124034028/http://www.nytimes.com/1989/11/10/arts/beatles-and-record-label-reach-pact-and-end-suit.html |archive-date=24 January 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Harry|2002|p=192}}

==== 1990s ====
''[[Live at the BBC (Beatles album)|Live at the BBC]]'', the first official release of unissued Beatles performances in 17&nbsp;years, appeared in 1994.{{sfn|Harry|2000a|pp=661–663}} That same year McCartney, Harrison and Starr collaborated on the ''[[The Beatles Anthology|Anthology]]'' project. ''Anthology'' was the culmination of work begun in 1970, when Apple Corps director [[Neil Aspinall]], their former road manager and personal assistant, had started to gather material for a documentary with the working title ''The Long and Winding Road''.{{sfn|Harry|2000a|pp=110–111}}

During 1995–96, the project yielded a television miniseries, an eight-volume video set and three two-CD/three-LP box sets featuring artwork by [[Klaus Voormann]]. Documenting their history in the band's own words, the ''Anthology'' project included the release of several unissued Beatles recordings. Alongside producer [[Jeff Lynne]], McCartney, Harrison and Starr also added new instrumental and vocal parts to songs recorded as demos by Lennon in the late 1970s,{{sfn|Harry|2000a|pp=111–112, 428, 907–908}} resulting in the release of two "new" Beatles singles, "[[Free as a Bird]]" and "[[Real Love (Beatles song)|Real Love]]". A third Lennon demo, "[[Now and Then (Beatles song)|Now and Then]]", was also attempted, but abandoned due to the low quality of the recording.<ref name=":0" /> The ''Anthology'' releases were commercially successful and the television series was viewed by an estimated 400&nbsp;million people.{{sfn|Harry|2000a|pp=111–112}} A book, ''[[The Beatles Anthology (book)|The Beatles Anthology]]'', followed in October 2000. In 1999, to coincide with the re-release of the 1968 film ''Yellow Submarine'', an expanded soundtrack album, ''[[Yellow Submarine Songtrack]]'', was issued.{{sfn|Doggett|2009|p=342}}

==== 2000s ====
The Beatles' ''[[1 (Beatles album)|1]]'', a compilation album of the band's British and American number-one hits, was released on 13 November 2000. It became the fastest-selling album of all time, with 3.6&nbsp;million sold in its first week<ref>{{cite news |publisher=[[CNN]] |agency=Reuters |title=Beatles '1' is fastest selling album ever |date=6 December 2000 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2000/SHOWBIZ/Music/12/06/beatles.reut/index.html |access-date=26 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302160919/http://edition.cnn.com/2000/SHOWBIZ/Music/12/06/beatles.reut/index.html |archive-date=2 March 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> and 13&nbsp;million within a month.{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=9}} It topped albums charts in at least 28 countries.{{sfn|Southall|Perry|2006|p=204}} The compilation had sold 31&nbsp;million copies globally by April 2009.<ref>{{cite news |last=Lewis |first=Randy |url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment/la-et-beatles8-2009apr08,0,242705.story |title=Beatles' Catalog Will Be Reissued Sept.&nbsp;9 in Remastered Versions |date=8 April 2009 |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |access-date=2 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090411024440/http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/la-et-beatles8-2009apr08%2C0%2C242705.story |archive-date=11 April 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Harrison died from [[Metastasis|metastatic]] lung cancer in November 2001.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thesmokinggun.com/documents/crime/george-harrisons-death-certificate |title=George Harrison's Death Certificate |work=[[The Smoking Gun]] |access-date=22 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120628104956/http://www.thesmokinggun.com/documents/crime/george-harrisons-death-certificate |archive-date=28 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |agency=BBC |title=George Harrison Dies |date=30 November 2001 |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1492446.stm |access-date=27 September 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090904001513/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1492446.stm |archive-date=4 September 2009}}</ref>{{sfn|Harry|2003|p=119}} McCartney and Starr were among the musicians who performed at the [[Concert for George]], organised by [[Eric Clapton]] and Harrison's widow, [[Olivia Harrison|Olivia]]. The tribute event took place at the [[Royal Albert Hall]] on the first anniversary of Harrison's death.{{sfn|Harry|2003|pp=138–139}}

In 2003, ''[[Let It Be... Naked]]'', a reconceived version of the ''Let It Be'' album, with McCartney supervising production, was released. One of the main differences from the Spector-produced version was the omission of the original string arrangements.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Naked Truth About The Beatles' Let It {{sic|BeNaked |nolink=y}} |url=https://mixonline.com/recording/interviews/audio_naked_truth_beatles/ |last=Hurwitz |first=Matt |work=[[Mix (magazine)|Mix]] |date=1 January 2004 |access-date=21 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530202935/http://mixonline.com/recording/interviews/audio_naked_truth_beatles/ |archive-date=30 May 2013}}</ref> It was a top-ten hit in both Britain and America. The US album configurations from 1964 to 1965 were released as box sets in 2004 and 2006; ''[[The Capitol Albums, Volume 1]]'' and ''[[The Capitol Albums, Volume 2|Volume 2]]'' included both stereo and mono versions based on the mixes that were prepared for vinyl at the time of the music's original American release.{{sfn|Womack|2007|p=100}}

As a soundtrack for [[Cirque du Soleil]]'s [[Las Vegas Strip|Las Vegas]] Beatles stage revue, ''[[Love (Cirque du Soleil)|Love]]'', George Martin and his son [[Giles Martin|Giles]] remixed and [[Mashup (music)|blended]] 130 of the band's recordings to create what Martin called "a way of re-living the whole Beatles musical lifespan in a very condensed period".<ref>{{cite web |website=[[NME]] |title=Beatles to release new album |date=2 October 2006 |url=https://www.nme.com/news/beatles/24534 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011185624/https://www.nme.com/news/beatles/24534 |archive-date=11 October 2011}}</ref> The show premiered in June 2006 and the ''[[Love (Beatles album)|Love]]'' album was released that November.<ref>{{cite news |last=Collett-White |first=Mike |title=McCartney Hints at Mythical Beatles Track Release |date=17 November 2008 |work=Reuters |url=https://uk.reuters.com/article/music-us-beatles-idUKTRE4AG64Y20081117 |access-date=20 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209013348/http://uk.reuters.com/article/2008/11/17/music-us-beatles-idUKTRE4AG64Y20081117 |archive-date=9 February 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In April 2009, Starr performed three songs with McCartney at a benefit concert held at New York's [[Radio City Music Hall]] and organised by McCartney.<ref>{{cite news |last=Lustig |first=Jay |title=Paul McCartney, Ringo Starr Perform Together in Support of Transcendental Meditation |website=[[The Star-Ledger]] |date=5 April 2009 |url=https://www.nj.com/entertainment/music/index.ssf/2009/04/paul_mccartney_ringo_starr_sin.html |access-date=6 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131115092140/http://www.nj.com/entertainment/music/index.ssf/2009/04/paul_mccartney_ringo_starr_sin.html |archive-date=15 November 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>

On 9 September 2009, the Beatles' entire back catalogue was reissued following an extensive digital remastering process that lasted four&nbsp;years.<ref name="EMI 2009">{{cite press release |publisher=EMI |title=The Beatles' Entire Original Recorded Catalogue Remastered by Apple Corps Ltd. |date=7 April 2009 |url=https://www.emimusic.com/news/2009/the-beatles-entire-original-recorded-catalogue-remastered-by-apple-corps-ltd-and-emi-music-for-worldwide-release-on-september-9-2009-9-9-09/ |access-date=25 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120401100034/http://www.emimusic.com/news/2009/the-beatles-entire-original-recorded-catalogue-remastered-by-apple-corps-ltd-and-emi-music-for-worldwide-release-on-september-9-2009-9-9-09/ |archive-date=1 April 2012}}</ref> Stereo editions of all twelve original UK studio albums, along with ''Magical Mystery Tour'' and the ''Past Masters'' compilation, were released on compact disc both individually and [[The Beatles (The Original Studio Recordings)|as a box set]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Eccleston |first=Danny |title=Beatles Remasters Reviewed |work=[[Mojo (magazine)|Mojo]] |date=9 September 2009 |url=https://www.mojo4music.com/blog/2009/09/beatles_remasters_reviewed.html |access-date=13 October 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091007072418/https://www.mojo4music.com/blog/2009/09/beatles_remasters_reviewed.html |archive-date=7 October 2009}}</ref> A second collection, ''[[The Beatles in Mono]]'', included remastered versions of every Beatles album released in true mono along with the original 1965 stereo mixes of ''Help!'' and ''Rubber Soul'' (both of which Martin had remixed for the 1987 editions).<ref>{{cite news |last=Collett-White |first=Mike |title=Original Beatles digitally remastered |work=Reuters |date=7 April 2009 |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-beatles-remastered-idUSTRE5363RN20090407 |access-date=13 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209220852/http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/04/07/us-beatles-remastered-idUSTRE5363RN20090407 |archive-date=9 February 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[The Beatles: Rock Band]]'', a music video game in the ''[[Rock Band]]'' series, was issued on the same day.<ref name="CNN Gross">{{cite news |last=Gross |first=Doug |url=https://www.cnn.com/2009/SHOWBIZ/Music/09/04/beatles.999/index.html |title=Still Relevant After Decades, The Beatles Set to Rock 9&nbsp;September 2009 |date=4 September 2009 |publisher=CNN |access-date=6 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090906145915/http://www.cnn.com/2009/SHOWBIZ/Music/09/04/beatles.999/index.html |archive-date=6 September 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> In December 2009, the band's catalogue was officially released in [[FLAC]] and [[MP3]] format in [[The Beatles (The Original Studio Recordings)#Limited edition USB flash drive|a limited edition of 30,000 USB flash drives]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Martens |first=Todd |title=Meet the Beatles' USB Drive; EMI Files Suit Against BlueBeat for Selling Beatles Downloads |date=4 November 2009 |website=[[Los Angeles Times]] |url=https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/music_blog/2009/11/meet-the-beatles-usb-drive-emi-files-suit-against-bluebeat-for-selling-beatles-downloads.html |access-date=5 November 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091106052411/http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/music_blog/2009/11/meet-the-beatles-usb-drive-emi-files-suit-against-bluebeat-for-selling-beatles-downloads.html |archive-date=6 November 2009}}</ref>

==== 2010s ====
Owing to a long-running royalty disagreement, the Beatles were among the last major artists to sign deals with online music services.<ref>{{cite news |last=La Monica |first=Paul R. |title=Hey iTunes, Don't Make It Bad&nbsp;... |publisher=[[CNN Money]] |date=7 September 2005 |url=https://money.cnn.com/2005/09/07/technology/personaltech/beatles/index.htm |access-date=25 July 2009|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090904070136/http://money.cnn.com/2005/09/07/technology/personaltech/beatles/index.htm |archive-date=4 September 2009}}</ref> Residual disagreement emanating from [[Apple Corps v Apple Computer|Apple Corps' dispute with Apple, Inc.]], [[iTunes]]' owners, over the use of the name "Apple" was also partly responsible for the delay, although in 2008, McCartney stated that the main obstacle to making the Beatles' catalogue available online was that EMI "want[s] something we're not prepared to give them".<ref>{{cite news |last=Kaplan |first=David |title=Beatles tracks not coming to iTunes any time soon; McCartney: Talks at an impasse |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=25 November 2008 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/pda/2008/nov/25/thebeatles-apple |access-date=16 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140317050622/http://www.theguardian.com/media/pda/2008/nov/25/thebeatles-apple |archive-date=17 March 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2010, the official canon of thirteen Beatles studio albums, ''Past Masters'' and the "Red" and "Blue" greatest-hits albums were made available on iTunes.<ref>{{cite news |last=Aswad |first=Jem |title=Beatles End Digital Boycott, Catalog Now on iTunes |magazine=[[Rolling Stone]] |date=16 November 2010 |access-date=17 November 2010 |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/beatles-end-digital-boycott-catalog-now-on-itunes-20101116 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101217060655/http://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/beatles-end-digital-boycott-catalog-now-on-itunes-20101116 |archive-date=17 December 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2012, EMI's recorded music operations were sold to [[Universal Music Group]]. In order for Universal Music to acquire EMI, the [[European Union]], for [[antitrust]] reasons, forced EMI to spin off assets including Parlophone. Universal was allowed to keep the Beatles' recorded music catalogue, managed by [[Capitol Records]] under its [[Capitol Music Group]] division.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ingham |first=Tim |url=https://www.musicweek.com/news/read/steve-barnett-named-chairman-of-universal-s-capitol-records/052695 |title=Universal's Capitol takes shape: Barnett in, Beatles on roster |work=Music Week |date=26 November 2012 |access-date=28 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208190010/http://www.musicweek.com/news/read/steve-barnett-named-chairman-of-universal-s-capitol-records/052695 |archive-date=8 February 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> The entire original Beatles album catalogue was also reissued on vinyl in 2012; available either individually or as a box set.<ref>{{cite news |last=Lewis |first=Randy |url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment/music/la-xpm-2012-sep-27-la-et-ms-beatles-vinyl-album-catalog-reissue-20120927-story.html |title=Beatles album catalog will get back to vinyl Nov. 13 |work=Los Angeles Times |date=27 September 2012 |access-date=29 September 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208143637/http://articles.latimes.com/2012/sep/27/entertainment/la-et-ms-beatles-vinyl-album-catalog-reissue-20120927 |archive-date=8 February 2013}}</ref>

In 2013, a second volume of BBC recordings, ''[[On Air – Live at the BBC Volume 2]]'', was released. That December saw the release of another 59 Beatles recordings on iTunes. The set, titled ''[[The Beatles Bootleg Recordings 1963]]'', had the opportunity to gain a 70-year copyright extension conditional on the songs being published at least once before the end of 2013. Apple Records released the recordings on 17 December to prevent them from going into the public domain and had them taken down from iTunes later that same day. Fan reactions to the release were mixed, with one blogger saying "the hardcore Beatles collectors who are trying to obtain everything will already have these."<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2013/dec/12/beatles-copyright-apple-release-tracks |title=Beatles for sale: copyright laws force Apple to release 59 tracks |first=Mark |last=Brown |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=12 December 2013|access-date=19 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215094508/http://www.theguardian.com/music/2013/dec/12/beatles-copyright-apple-release-tracks|archive-date=15 December 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/beatles-surprise-with-rare-bootleg-1963-release-20131217 |title=Beatles Surprise With 'Beatles Bootleg Recordings 1963 Release' |first=Steve |last=Knopper |magazine=Rolling Stone |date=17 December 2013|access-date=19 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219231439/http://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/beatles-surprise-with-rare-bootleg-1963-release-20131217|archive-date=19 December 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 26 January 2014, McCartney and Starr performed together at the [[56th Annual Grammy Awards]], held at the [[Staples Center]] in Los Angeles.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/paul-mccartney-and-ringo-starr-share-grammy-stage-for-rare-performance-20140126 |title=Paul McCartney and Ringo Starr Share Grammy Stage for Rare Performance |magazine=Rolling Stone |date=26 January 2014 |access-date=15 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171006162213/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/paul-mccartney-and-ringo-starr-share-grammy-stage-for-rare-performance-20140126 |archive-date=6 October 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> The following day, ''[[The Night That Changed America: A Grammy Salute to the Beatles]]'' television special was taped in the [[Los Angeles Convention Center]]'s West Hall. It aired on 9 February, the exact date of&nbsp;– and at the same time and on the same network as&nbsp;– the original broadcast of the Beatles' first US television appearance on ''The Ed Sullivan Show'', 50&nbsp;years earlier. The special included performances of Beatles songs by current artists as well as by McCartney and Starr, archival footage and interviews with the two surviving ex-Beatles carried out by [[David Letterman]] at the [[Ed Sullivan Theater]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.grammy.com/news/grammy-beatles-special-to-air-feb-9-2014 |title=GRAMMY Beatles Special To Air Feb. 9, 2014 |publisher=Grammy Awards |access-date=13 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131116033058/http://www.grammy.com/news/grammy-beatles-special-to-air-feb-9-2014 |archive-date=16 November 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Yarborough |first=Chuck |url=https://www.cleveland.com/popmusic/index.ssf/2014/02/paul_mccartney_ringo_starr_to.html |title=Paul McCartney, Ringo Starr to be interviewed by David Letterman for 'Grammy Salute to the Beatles' |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |date=7 February 2014 |access-date=6 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171006162126/https://www.cleveland.com/popmusic/index.ssf/2014/02/paul_mccartney_ringo_starr_to.html |archive-date=6 October 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> In December 2015, the Beatles released their catalogue for streaming on various streaming music services including [[Spotify]] and [[Apple Music]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Dillet |first1=Romain |title=The Beatles Come To Spotify, Apple Music And Other Streaming Services |url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/12/23/the-beatles-come-to-spotify-apple-music-and-other-streaming-services/ |website=TechCrunch |date=23 December 2015|access-date=31 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131013342/http://techcrunch.com/2015/12/23/the-beatles-come-to-spotify-apple-music-and-other-streaming-services/|archive-date=31 January 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

In September 2016, the documentary film ''[[The Beatles: Eight Days a Week]]'' was released. Directed by [[Ron Howard]], it chronicled the Beatles' career during their touring years from 1961 to 1966, from their performances in Liverpool's the Cavern Club in 1961 to their final concert in San Francisco in 1966. The film was released theatrically on 15 September in the UK and the US, and started streaming on [[Hulu]] on 17 September. It received several awards and nominations, including for Best Documentary at the 70th British Academy Film Awards and the Outstanding Documentary or Nonfiction Special at the 69th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thebeatles.com/news/watch-trailer-beatles-eight-days-week-touring-years |title=Watch the Trailer for 'The Beatles: Eight Days a Week – The Touring Years' |date=20 June 2016 |website=thebeatles.com|access-date=15 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015060447/https://www.thebeatles.com/news/watch-trailer-beatles-eight-days-week-touring-years|archive-date=15 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> An expanded, remixed and remastered version of ''The Beatles at the Hollywood Bowl'' was released on 9 September, to coincide with the release of the film.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uncut.co.uk/news/beatles-release-new-hollywood-bowl-live-album-84822 |title=The Beatles to release remixed and remastered recordings from their Hollywood Bowl concerts |work=Uncut |author=Bonner, Michael |date=20 July 2016|access-date=20 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160721115149/http://www.uncut.co.uk/news/beatles-release-new-hollywood-bowl-live-album-84822|archive-date=21 July 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/beatles-announce-new-live-at-the-hollywood-bowl-album-w429893 |title=Beatles Announce New 'Live at the Hollywood Bowl' Album |magazine=Rolling Stone |author=Grow, Kory |date=20 July 2016|access-date=20 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830112528/http://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/beatles-announce-new-live-at-the-hollywood-bowl-album-w429893|archive-date=30 August 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 18 May 2017, [[Sirius XM Radio]] launched a 24/7 radio channel, The Beatles Channel. A week later, ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band: 50th Anniversary Edition|Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]'' was reissued with new stereo mixes and unreleased material for the album's 50th anniversary.<ref>{{cite web |last=Deriso |first=Nick |url=https://ultimateclassicrock.com/beatles-sgt-pepper-reissue-release-date/ |title=Release Date and Formats Revealed for Beatles Expanded 'Sgt. Pepper' Reissue |website=Ultimate Classic Rock |date=4 April 2017|access-date=9 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170407084255/http://ultimateclassicrock.com/beatles-sgt-pepper-reissue-release-date/|archive-date=7 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Similar box sets were released for ''[[The Beatles: 50th Anniversary Edition|The Beatles]]'' in November 2018,<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Enos |first=Morgan |url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/rock/8477265/the-beatles-white-album-reissue-giles-martin |title=The Beatles' White Album Remastered: Producer Giles Martin Talks Giving the Classic a Fresh Look at 50 |magazine=Billboard |date=1 October 2018|access-date=7 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181008005718/https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/rock/8477265/the-beatles-white-album-reissue-giles-martin|archive-date=8 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> and ''[[Abbey Road: 50th Anniversary Edition|Abbey Road]]'' in September 2019.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://abbeyroad.thebeatles.com/ |title=The Beatles Revisit Abbey Road with Special Anniversary Releases |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=8 August 2019 |website=thebeatles.com |publisher=Apple Corps |access-date=8 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808103219/https://abbeyroad.thebeatles.com/ |archive-date=8 August 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> In October 2019, ''Abbey Road'' returned to number one on the UK Albums Chart. The Beatles broke their own record for the album with the longest gap between topping the charts as ''Abbey Road'' hit the top spot 50&nbsp;years after its original release.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/10/04/beatles-abbey-road-returns-number-one-50-years/ |title=The Beatles' Abbey Road returns to number one 50 years on |date=4 October 2019 |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]]|access-date=15 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015055010/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/10/04/beatles-abbey-road-returns-number-one-50-years/|archive-date=15 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== 2020s ====
In November 2021, ''[[The Beatles: Get Back]]'', a documentary directed by [[Peter Jackson]] using footage captured for the ''Let It Be'' film, was released on [[Disney+]] as a three-part [[miniseries]].<ref>{{Cite web |title='The Beatles: Get Back', a Disney+ Original Documentary Series Directed by Peter Jackson, to Debut Exclusively on Disney+ |url=https://www.thebeatles.com/news/%E2%80%9C-beatles-get-back%E2%80%9D-disney-original-documentary-series-directed-peter-jackson-debut-exclusively|access-date=7 July 2021 |website=The Beatles |language=en|archive-date=17 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210617142958/https://www.thebeatles.com/news/%E2%80%9C-beatles-get-back%E2%80%9D-disney-original-documentary-series-directed-peter-jackson-debut-exclusively|url-status=dead}}</ref> A book by the same title was released on 12 October.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Beatles Expanded Let It Be/Get Back Release Is Due In October |publisher=noise11.com |url=https://www.noise11.com/news/the-beatles-expanded-let-it-be-get-back-release-is-due-in-october-20210813 |date=13 August 2021|access-date=26 August 2021|archive-date=15 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211015165755/https://www.noise11.com/news/the-beatles-expanded-let-it-be-get-back-release-is-due-in-october-20210813|url-status=live}}</ref> A [[Let It Be: Special Edition|super deluxe version]] of the ''[[Let It Be (album)|Let It Be]]'' album was released on 15 October.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Sheffield |first=Rob |date=26 August 2021 |title=The Unheard 'Let It Be': An Exclusive Guide to the Beatles' New Expanded Classic |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/beatles-let-it-be-special-edition-super-deluxe-1214774/|access-date=26 August 2021 |magazine=Rolling Stone |language=en-US|archive-date=26 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210826131345/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/beatles-let-it-be-special-edition-super-deluxe-1214774/|url-status=live}}</ref> In January 2022, the album ''[[The Beatles' rooftop concert#Set list|Get Back (Rooftop Performance)]]'', consisting of newly mixed audio of [[The Beatles' rooftop concert|the Beatles' rooftop performance]], was released on streaming services.<ref>{{Cite web |title='The Beatles: Get Back-the Rooftop Performance' |url=https://www.thebeatles.com/beatles-get-back-rooftop-performance-0|access-date=25 March 2022 |website=www.thebeatles.com|archive-date=30 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220430054941/https://www.thebeatles.com/beatles-get-back-rooftop-performance-0|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2022, McCartney and Starr collaborated on [[Let It Be (song)#Dolly Parton version|a new recording]] of "[[Let It Be (song)|Let It Be]]" with [[Dolly Parton]], [[Peter Frampton]] and [[Mick Fleetwood]], which was released on Parton's album ''[[Rockstar (Dolly Parton album)|Rockstar]]'' in November 2023.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.billboard.com/music/rock/dolly-parton-love-note-paul-mccartney-ringo-starr-rockstar-collaboration-1235504979/ |title=Dolly Parton Says She Sent 'Love Note' to Paul McCartney & Ringo Starr to Ask Them for 'Rockstar' Collaboration |first=Rania |last=Aniftos |publisher=Billboard |date=21 November 2023 |accessdate=11 January 2024|archive-date=11 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240111174226/https://www.billboard.com/music/rock/dolly-parton-love-note-paul-mccartney-ringo-starr-rockstar-collaboration-1235504979/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite magazine |last=Nicholson |first=Jessica |date=9 May 2023 |title=Dolly Parton's Star-Studded Album 'Rockstar' Finally Has a Release Date |url=https://www.billboard.com/music/country/dolly-parton-rock-album-rockstar-release-date-1235325131/ |magazine=Billboard |language=en-US |access-date=9 May 2023 |archive-date=13 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231213082841/https://www.billboard.com/music/country/dolly-parton-rock-album-rockstar-release-date-1235325131/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In October, a [[Revolver: Special Edition|special edition]] of ''Revolver'' was released, featuring unreleased demos, studio outtakes, the original mono mix and a new stereo remix using [[Artificial intelligence|AI]] de-mixing technology developed by Peter Jackson's [[WingNut Films]], which had previously been used to restore audio for the documentary ''Get Back''.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Aswad |first1=Jem |title=The Beatles' 'Revolver' Box Brings a 'Get Back' Treatment to the Group's Creative Breakthrough: Album Review |url=https://variety.com/2022/music/album-reviews/the-beatles-revolver-deluxe-box-album-review-1235417007/ |website=Variety |access-date=18 November 2022 |date=28 October 2022 |archive-date=18 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118120644/https://variety.com/2022/music/album-reviews/the-beatles-revolver-deluxe-box-album-review-1235417007/ |url-status=live}}</ref> New music videos were produced for "[[Here, There and Everywhere]]" and "[[I'm Only Sleeping]]", the latter of which won the [[Grammy Award for Best Music Video]] at the [[66th Annual Grammy Awards]].

[[File:McCartneyO2101224 p2 (167 of 191) (54225060041).jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Starr joined McCartney's 19 December 2024 solo show as a guest performer for two Beatles songs.]]
In June 2023, McCartney announced plans to release "the final Beatles record" later in the year, using Jackson's de-mixing technology to extract Lennon's voice from an old demo of a song that he had written as a solo artist.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |date=13 June 2023 |title=Sir Paul McCartney says artificial intelligence has enabled a 'final' Beatles song |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-65881813 |access-date=13 June 2023 |archive-date=5 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230805102233/https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-65881813 |url-status=live}}</ref> In October 2023, the song was revealed to be "[[Now and Then (Beatles song)|Now and Then]]", with a physical and digital release date of 2 November 2023.<ref name="NowAndThen2023">{{cite web |last=Ruggieri |first=Melissa |date=26 October 2023 |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/entertainment/music/2023/10/26/beatles-last-song-now-and-then-release-date-ai-explained/71315449007/ |title=The last Beatles song, 'Now and Then,' finally arrives after more than 40 years |work=USA Today |publisher=Gannett |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20231026221203/https://www.usatoday.com/story/entertainment/music/2023/10/26/beatles-last-song-now-and-then-release-date-ai-explained/71315449007/ |archivedate=26 October 2023}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=McIntyre |first=Hugh |title=The Beatles Dethrone Taylor Swift On Spotify |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/hughmcintyre/2023/11/03/the-beatles-dethrone-taylor-swift-on-spotify/ |access-date=6 November 2023 |website=Forbes |language=en |archive-date=6 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231106190504/https://www.forbes.com/sites/hughmcintyre/2023/11/03/the-beatles-dethrone-taylor-swift-on-spotify/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The official music video for "Now and Then" was released the following day, garnering upwards of 8&nbsp;million views in its first 12 hours,<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Watercutter |first1=Angela |title='Now and Then,' the Beatles' Last Song, Is Here, Thanks to Peter Jackson's AI |url=https://www.wired.com/story/the-beatles-now-and-then-last-song-artificial-intelligence-peter-jackson/ |magazine=Wired |access-date=4 November 2023 |date=3 November 2023 |archive-date=4 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231104002316/https://www.wired.com/story/the-beatles-now-and-then-last-song-artificial-intelligence-peter-jackson/ |url-status=live}}</ref> as the song arrived on Spotify's rankings as one of the most-streamed current songs.<ref name=":2" /> "Now and Then" debuted simultaneously across music, alternative, news/talk and sports stations. The song's premiere achieved the record for the most radio stations to simulcast a music track.<ref>{{Cite web |last=White |first=Matthew |date=6 November 2023 |title=The Beatles' last single "Now and Then" breaks radio record as AI revives Lennon recording |url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/news/2023/11/the-beatles-last-single-now-and-then-breaks-radio-record-as-ai-revives-lennon-760660 |access-date=9 November 2023 |website=Guinness world records |archive-date=9 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109132259/https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/news/2023/11/the-beatles-last-single-now-and-then-breaks-radio-record-as-ai-revives-lennon-760660 |url-status=live}}</ref> The song became their first UK number-one single since 1969.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Beaumont-Thomas |first1=Ben |title=The Beatles set record 54-year gap between No 1 singles as Now and Then tops UK chart |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2023/nov/10/the-beatles-54-years-no-1-singles-now-and-then-uk-chart |access-date=28 November 2023 |work=The Guardian |date=10 November 2023 |archive-date=11 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111080219/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2023/nov/10/the-beatles-54-years-no-1-singles-now-and-then-uk-chart |url-status=live}}</ref> It won the [[Grammy Award for Best Rock Performance]] at the [[67th Annual Grammy Awards]], and was also nominated for [[Grammy Award for Record of the Year|Record of the Year]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rosenbloom |first=Alli |date=2 February 2025 |title=See who won at the 2025 Grammy Awards |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2025/02/02/entertainment/award-winners-list-grammys/index.html |work=[[CNN]] |access-date=4 February 2025}}</ref> The nominations were also historically significant for making "Now and Then" the first [[Artificial intelligence|Artificial Intelligence]]-assisted track to be nominated for a Grammy award, and first to win.<ref name="Digital Music News">{{cite web |last1=King |first1=Ashley |title=Beatles 'Now & Then' Becomes First AI-Assisted Song Nominated for a Grammy |url=https://www.digitalmusicnews.com/2024/11/08/beatles-now-and-then-ai-assist-grammy/ |website=www.digitalmusicnews.com |date=9 November 2024 |publisher=Digital Music News |access-date=6 January 2025}}</ref>

On 8 May 2024, the 1970 film ''[[Let It Be (1970 film)|Let It Be]]'' was released on Disney+, following a digital restoration by Jackson's [[Park Road Post]]; it was the first time it was publicly screened since its original theatrical release.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tingley |first=Anna |date=8 May 2024 |title=Beatles' 1970 'Let It Be' Documentary Is Now Streaming on Disney+ |url=https://variety.com/2024/music/news/beatles-let-it-be-documentary-how-to-watch-online-streaming-1235996229/ |access-date=10 May 2024 |website=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] |language=en-US |archive-date=10 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240510083342/https://variety.com/2024/music/news/beatles-let-it-be-documentary-how-to-watch-online-streaming-1235996229/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Artistry ==
{{See also|Lennon–McCartney}}

=== Development ===
In ''Icons of Rock: An Encyclopedia of the Legends Who Changed Music Forever'', Scott Schinder and Andy Schwartz describe the Beatles' musical evolution:

{{blockquote|In their initial incarnation as cheerful, wisecracking moptops, the Fab Four revolutionised the sound, style, and attitude of popular music and opened rock and roll's doors to a tidal wave of British rock acts. Their initial impact would have been enough to establish the Beatles as one of their era's most influential cultural forces, but they didn't stop there. Although their initial style was a highly original, irresistibly catchy synthesis of early American rock and roll and R&B, the Beatles spent the rest of the 1960s expanding rock's stylistic frontiers, consistently staking out new musical territory on each release. The band's increasingly sophisticated experimentation encompassed a variety of genres, including [[folk-rock]], [[country music|country]], [[psychedelic music|psychedelia]], and [[baroque pop]], without sacrificing the effortless mass appeal of their early work.{{sfn|Schinder|Schwartz|2007|p=160}}}}

In ''The Beatles as Musicians'', [[Walter Everett (musicologist)|Walter Everett]] describes Lennon and McCartney's contrasting motivations and approaches to composition: "McCartney may be said to have constantly developed – as a means to entertain – a focused musical talent with an ear for counterpoint and other aspects of craft in the demonstration of a universally agreed-upon common language that he did much to enrich. Conversely, Lennon's mature music is best appreciated as the daring product of a largely unconscious, searching but undisciplined artistic sensibility."{{sfn|Everett|1999|p=9}}

Ian MacDonald describes McCartney as "a natural melodist&nbsp;– a creator of tunes capable of existing apart from their harmony". His melody lines are characterised as primarily "vertical", employing wide, [[Consonance and dissonance|consonant]] intervals which express his "extrovert energy and optimism". Conversely, Lennon's "sedentary, ironic personality" is reflected in a "horizontal" approach featuring minimal, dissonant intervals and repetitive melodies which rely on their harmonic accompaniment for interest: "Basically a realist, he instinctively kept his melodies close to the rhythms and cadences of speech, colouring his lyrics with bluesy tone and harmony rather than creating tunes that made striking shapes of their own."{{sfn|MacDonald|2005|p=12}} MacDonald praises Harrison's lead guitar work for the role his "characterful lines and textural colourings" play in supporting Lennon and McCartney's parts and describes Starr as "the father of modern pop/rock drumming".{{sfn|MacDonald|2005|pp=382–383}}

=== Influences ===
The Beatles' earliest influences include Elvis Presley, [[Carl Perkins]], [[Little Richard]], [[Chuck Berry]] and [[Gene Vincent]].{{sfn|Harry|2000a|pp=140, 660, 856–858, 881}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2013/oct/02/beatles-tune-in-mark-lewisohn-review |title=The Beatles – All These Years: Volume One: Tune in by Mark Lewisohn – review |date=2013 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=4 May 2023|archive-date=4 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230504231227/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2013/oct/02/beatles-tune-in-mark-lewisohn-review|url-status=live}}</ref> During the Beatles' co-residency with Little Richard at the [[Star-Club]] in Hamburg, from April to May 1962, he advised them on the proper technique for performing his songs.{{sfn|Harry|2000a|p=660}} Of Presley, Lennon said, "Nothing really affected me until I heard Elvis. If there hadn't been Elvis, there would not have been the Beatles."{{sfn|Harry|2000a|p=881}} Chuck Berry was particularly influential in terms of songwriting and lyrics. Lennon noted, "He was well advanced of his time lyric-wise. We all owe a lot to him."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.johnlennon.com/music/interviews/rolling-stone-interview-1970/ |title=The Rolling Stone Interview, December 1970. |date=1970 |newspaper=[[Rolling Stone]]|access-date=11 May 2023|archive-date=8 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408222419/https://www.johnlennon.com/music/interviews/rolling-stone-interview-1970/|url-status=live}}</ref> Other early influences include Buddy Holly, [[Eddie Cochran]], [[Roy Orbison]],{{sfn|Harry|2000a|pp=289, 526, 830}} [[the Everly Brothers]]{{sfn|Spitz|2005|pp=111, 123, 131, 133}} and [[Jerry Lee Lewis]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/feature/john-lennon-the-last-interview-179443/ |title=John Lennon: The Last Interview |date=2010 |newspaper=[[Rolling Stone]]|access-date=4 May 2023|archive-date=24 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210724205328/https://www.rollingstone.com/feature/john-lennon-the-last-interview-179443/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Beatles continued to absorb influences long after their initial success, often finding new musical and lyrical avenues by listening to their contemporaries, including [[Bob Dylan]], [[Smokey Robinson and the Miracles]], [[the Who]], [[Frank Zappa]], [[the Lovin' Spoonful]], [[the Byrds]] and [[the Beach Boys]], whose 1966 album ''[[Pet Sounds]]'' amazed and inspired McCartney.{{sfn|Harry|2000a|pp=99, 217, 357, 1195}}{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=333–335, 359}}{{sfn|Lavezzoli|2006|pp=147, 150, 162, 169}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2004/feb/01/thebeatles.popandrock |title=Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! |date=2004 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=1 May 2023|archive-date=1 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230501235518/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2004/feb/01/thebeatles.popandrock|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Miles |first=Barry |date=November 1966 |title=A Conversation with Paul McCartney |newspaper=International Times |location=London}}</ref> Referring to the Beach Boys' creative leader, Martin later stated: "No one made a greater impact on the Beatles than Brian [Wilson]."{{sfn|Granata|2003|p=17}} Ravi Shankar, with whom Harrison studied for six weeks in India in late 1966, had a significant effect on his musical development during the band's later years.{{sfn|Lavezzoli|2006|pp=147, 165, 177}}

=== Genres ===
Originating as a skiffle group, the Beatles quickly embraced 1950s rock and roll and helped pioneer the Merseybeat genre,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.allmusic.com/style/merseybeat-ma0000012018/songs |title=Merseybeat – Significant Albums, Artists and Songs |publisher=AllMusic|access-date=27 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016041739/http://www.allmusic.com/style/merseybeat-ma0000012018/songs|archive-date=16 October 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> and their repertoire ultimately expanded to include a broad variety of pop music.{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=30–32, 100–107}} Reflecting the range of styles they explored, Lennon said of ''Beatles for Sale'', "You could call our new one a Beatles country-and-western LP",{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=255}} while Gould credits ''Rubber Soul'' as "the instrument by which legions of folk-music enthusiasts were coaxed into the camp of pop".{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=296}}

[[File:Guitarras de McCartney y Harrison.jpg|upright=.75|thumb|A [[Höfner 500/1|Höfner "violin" bass guitar]] and [[Gretsch|Gretsch Country Gentleman guitar]], models played by McCartney and Harrison, respectively; the [[Vox AC30]] amplifier behind them is the model the Beatles used during performances in the early 1960s.|alt=Two electric guitars, a light brown violin-shaped bass and a darker brown guitar resting against a Vox amplifier]]

Although the 1965 song "Yesterday" was not the first pop record to employ orchestral strings, it marked the group's first recorded use of classical music elements. Gould observes, "The more traditional sound of strings allowed for a fresh appreciation of their talent as composers by listeners who were otherwise allergic to the din of drums and electric guitars."{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=278}} They continued to experiment with string arrangements to various effect; ''Sgt. Pepper''{{'}}s "[[She's Leaving Home]]", for instance, is "cast in the {{lang|en-US|mold}} of a sentimental Victorian ballad", Gould writes, "its words and music filled with the clichés of musical melodrama".{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=402}}

The band's stylistic range expanded in another direction with their 1966 B-side "Rain", described by [[Martin C. Strong|Martin Strong]] as "the first overtly psychedelic Beatles record".{{sfn|Strong|2004|p=108}} Other psychedelic numbers followed, such as "Tomorrow Never Knows" (recorded before "Rain"), "Strawberry Fields Forever", "[[Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds]]" and "[[I Am the Walrus]]". The influence of [[Indian classical music]] was evident in Harrison's "[[The Inner Light (song)|The Inner Light]]", "[[Love You To]]" and "[[Within You Without You]]" – Gould describes the latter two as attempts "to replicate the [[raga]] form in miniature".{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=406, 462–463}}

Innovation was the most striking feature of their creative evolution, according to music historian and pianist Michael Campbell: <blockquote>'A Day in the Life' encapsulates the art and achievement of the Beatles as well as any single track can. It highlights key features of their music: the sound imagination, the persistence of tuneful melody and the close coordination between words and music. It represents a new category of song – more sophisticated than pop&nbsp;... and uniquely innovative. There literally had never before been a song – classical or vernacular – that had blended so many disparate elements so imaginatively.{{sfn|Campbell|2008|p=196}}</blockquote> Philosophy professor Bruce Ellis Benson agrees: "The Beatles&nbsp;... give us a wonderful example of how such far-ranging influences as Celtic music, rhythm and blues, and country and western could be put together in a new way."{{sfn|Benson|2003|p=43}}

Author Dominic Pedler describes the way they crossed musical styles: <blockquote>Far from moving sequentially from one genre to another (as is sometimes conveniently suggested) the group maintained ''in parallel'' their mastery of the traditional, catchy chart hit while simultaneously forging rock and dabbling with a wide range of peripheral influences from country to vaudeville. One of these threads was their take on folk music, which would form such essential groundwork for their later collisions with Indian music and philosophy.{{sfn|Pedler|2003|p=256}}</blockquote> As the personal relationships between the band members grew increasingly strained, their individual tastes became more apparent. The minimalistic cover artwork for the White Album contrasted with the complexity and diversity of its music, which encompassed Lennon's "[[Revolution 9]]" (whose [[musique concrète]] approach was influenced by Yoko Ono), Starr's [[country music|country]] song "[[Don't Pass Me By]]", Harrison's [[rock ballad]] "[[While My Guitar Gently Weeps]]" and the "[[Heavy metal music#Origins: late 1960s and early 1970s|proto-metal]] roar" of McCartney's "[[Helter Skelter (song)|Helter Skelter]]".<ref name="White Album AllMusic">{{cite web |last=Erlewine |first=Stephen Thomas |title=''The Beatles [White Album]'' – The Beatles |publisher=AllMusic |url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/the-beatles-white-album-mw0000418113 |access-date=21 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530202730/https://www.allmusic.com/album/the-beatles-white-album-mw0000418113 |archive-date=30 May 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Contribution of George Martin ===
[[File:Beatles and George Martin in studio 1966.JPG|thumb|alt=The Beatles with George Martin in the studio in the mid-1960s|[[George Martin]] (second from right) in the studio with the Beatles in the mid-1960s]]
[[George Martin]]'s close involvement in his role as producer made him one of the leading candidates for the informal title of the "[[fifth Beatle]]".{{sfn|Harry|2000a|p=721}} He applied his classical musical training in various ways and functioned as "an informal music teacher" to the progressing songwriters, according to Gould.{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=121, 290}} Martin suggested to a sceptical McCartney that the arrangement of "Yesterday" should feature a string quartet accompaniment, thereby introducing the Beatles to a "hitherto unsuspected world of classical instrumental colour", in MacDonald's description.{{sfn|MacDonald|2005|p=158}} Their creative development was also facilitated by Martin's willingness to experiment in response to their suggestions, such as adding "something [[baroque music|baroque]]" to a particular recording.{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=290}} In addition to scoring orchestral arrangements for recordings, Martin often performed on them, playing instruments including piano, organ and [[Brass instrument|brass]].{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=382, 405, 409, 443, 584}}

Collaborating with Lennon and McCartney required Martin to adapt to their different approaches to songwriting and recording. MacDonald comments, "while [he] worked more naturally with the conventionally articulate McCartney, the challenge of catering to Lennon's intuitive approach generally spurred him to his more original arrangements".{{sfn|MacDonald|2005|p=238}} Martin said of the two composers' distinct songwriting styles and his stabilising influence:

{{blockquote|Compared with Paul's songs, all of which seemed to keep in some sort of touch with reality, John's had a psychedelic, almost mystical quality&nbsp;... John's imagery is one of the best things about his work&nbsp;– 'tangerine trees', 'marmalade skies', 'cellophane flowers' ...&nbsp;I always saw him as an aural [[Salvador Dalí]], rather than some drug-ridden record artist. On the other hand, I would be stupid to pretend that drugs didn't figure quite heavily in the Beatles' lives at that time&nbsp;... they knew that I, in my schoolmasterly role, didn't approve&nbsp;... Not only was I not into it myself, I couldn't see the need for it; and there's no doubt that, if I too had been on dope, ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band|Pepper]]'' would never have been the album it was. Perhaps it was the combination of dope and no dope that worked, who knows?{{sfn|Martin|1979|pp=205–206}}}}

Harrison echoed Martin's description of his stabilising role: <blockquote>I think we just grew through those years together, him as the straight man and us as the loonies; but he was always there for us to interpret our madness&nbsp;– we used to be slightly avant-garde on certain days of the week, and he would be there as the anchor person, to communicate that through the engineers and on to the tape.{{sfn|Harry|2003|p=264}}</blockquote>

=== In the studio ===
{{See also|Recording practices of the Beatles}}

Making innovative use of technology while expanding the possibilities of recorded music, the Beatles urged experimentation by Martin and his recording engineers. Seeking ways to put chance occurrences to creative use, accidental guitar feedback, a resonating glass bottle, a tape loaded the wrong way round so that it played backwards – any of these might be incorporated into their music.{{sfn|Hertsgaard|1995|p=103}} Their desire to create new sounds on every new recording, combined with Martin's arranging abilities and the studio expertise of EMI staff engineers Norman Smith, [[Ken Townsend]] and Geoff Emerick, all contributed significantly to their records from ''Rubber Soul'' and, especially, ''Revolver'' onwards.{{sfn|Hertsgaard|1995|p=103}}

Along with innovative studio techniques such as [[audio signal processing|sound effects]], unconventional microphone placements, tape loops, [[double tracking]] and [[vari-speed]] recording, the Beatles augmented their songs with instruments that were unconventional in rock music at the time. These included string and brass ensembles as well as Indian instruments such as the sitar in "Norwegian Wood" and the [[swarmandal]] in "Strawberry Fields Forever".{{sfn|MacDonald|2005|p=212}} They also used novel electronic instruments such as the Mellotron, with which McCartney supplied the flute voices on the "Strawberry Fields Forever" intro,{{sfn|MacDonald|2005|p=219}} and the [[clavioline]], an electronic keyboard that created the unusual oboe-like sound on "[[Baby, You're a Rich Man]]".{{sfn|MacDonald|2005|p=259}}

== Legacy ==
{{Main|Cultural impact of the Beatles}}
{{multiple image
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| caption1  = ''[[The Beatles Monument (Almaty)|The Beatles Monument]]'' in [[Almaty]], Kazakhstan
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| alt2      = Statue in Liverpool
| caption2  = The Beatles statue at [[Pier Head]] in [[Liverpool]], their home city
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| image3    = Alistar and Alfio from The Cairos cross Abbey Road with Jesse Davidson and Dj Sammy T.jpg
| width3    =
| alt3      = Road crossing in London
| caption3 = [[Abbey Road#Abbey Road crossing and "Paul is dead"|Abbey Road crossing]] in London is a popular destination for Beatles fans. In December 2010 it was given [[Listed building#Grade II|grade II listed]] status for its "cultural and historical importance"; the Abbey Road studios themselves had been given similar status earlier in the year.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-12059385 |title=Beatles' Abbey Road zebra crossing given listed status |date=22 December 2010 |work=BBC News|access-date=27 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720174732/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-12059385|archive-date=20 July 2011}}</ref>
}}

Former ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' magazine associate editor [[Robert Greenfield]] compared the Beatles to [[Pablo Picasso|Picasso]], as "artists who broke through the constraints of their time period to come up with something that was unique and original&nbsp;... [I]n the form of popular music, no one will ever be more revolutionary, more creative and more distinctive&nbsp;..."<ref name="CNN Gross" /> The British poet [[Philip Larkin]] described their work as "an enchanting and intoxicating hybrid of Negro rock-and-roll with their own adolescent romanticism" and "the first advance in popular music since the War".<ref>{{cite book |last=Drabble |first=Margaret |author-link=Margaret Drabble |title=The Oxford Companion to English Literature |edition=6th |pages=76–77 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-19-866244-0 |url=https://www.abebooks.com/servlet/BookDetailsPL?bi=16096298022&searchurl=isbn%3D0198662440|access-date=6 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202025140/http://www.abebooks.com/servlet/BookDetailsPL?bi=16096298022&searchurl=isbn%3D0198662440|archive-date=2 February 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1964, the Beatles' arrival in the U.S. is credited with initiating the [[album era]];<ref>{{cite web |first=Ann |last=Powers |authorlink=Ann Powers |title=A New Canon: In Pop Music, Women Belong at the Center of the Story |url=https://www.npr.org/2017/07/24/538601651/a-new-canon-in-pop-music-women-belong-at-the-center-of-the-story |publisher=[[NPR]] |date=24 July 2017|access-date=10 March 2020|archive-date=22 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230122040554/https://www.npr.org/2017/07/24/538601651/a-new-canon-in-pop-music-women-belong-at-the-center-of-the-story|url-status=live}}</ref> the music historian [[Joel Whitburn]] says that LP sales soon "exploded and eventually outpaced the sales and releases of singles" in the music industry.<ref>{{cite book |last=Whitburn |first=Joel |authorlink=Joel Whitburn |year=2003 |title=Joel Whitburn's Top Pop Singles 1955–2002 |publisher=[[Record Research]] |isbn=978-0-89820-155-0 |page=xxiii}}</ref> They not only sparked the British Invasion of the US,{{sfn|Everett|1999|p=277}} they became a globally influential phenomenon as well.{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=8}} From the 1920s, the US had dominated popular entertainment culture throughout much of the world, via [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]] films, [[jazz]], the music of Broadway and [[Tin Pan Alley]], and later, the rock and roll that first emerged in [[Memphis, Tennessee]].{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=9}} The Beatles are regarded as British cultural icons, with young adults from abroad naming the band among a group of people whom they most associated with UK culture.<ref>{{cite news |title=Shakespeare 'a cultural icon' abroad |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-27110234 |agency=BBC |date=9 April 2017|access-date=6 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140913230807/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-27110234|archive-date=13 September 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Culture, attraction and soft power |url=https://www.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/as-others-see-us-report.pdf |publisher=British Council |date=9 April 2017|access-date=9 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403042324/https://www.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/as-others-see-us-report.pdf|archive-date=3 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

Their musical innovations and commercial success inspired musicians worldwide.{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=8}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vega |first=Luis Daniel |title=Una idea descabellada: instantáneas del rock en Bogotá (1957–1975) |url=https://bibliotecadigitaldebogota.gov.co/resources/3648839/ |access-date=11 April 2024 |website=bibliotecadigitaldebogota.gov.co |language=es |archive-date=27 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240327113242/https://www.bibliotecadigitaldebogota.gov.co/resources/3648839/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Many artists have acknowledged the Beatles' influence and enjoyed chart success with [[List of cover versions of Beatles songs|covers of their songs]].<ref>{{cite web |publisher=BBC Radio 2 |title=60s Season&nbsp;– Documentaries |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/radio2/events/60sseason/documentaries/sgtpeppers.shtml#tracklist |access-date=25 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090211073431/http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio2/events/60sseason/documentaries/sgtpeppers.shtml#tracklist |archive-date=11 February 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> On radio, their arrival marked the beginning of a new era; in 1968 the programme director of New York's [[WABC (AM)|WABC]] radio station forbade his DJs from playing any "pre-Beatles" music, marking the defining line of what would be considered [[oldies]] on American radio.{{sfn|Fisher|2007|p=198}} They helped to redefine the album as something more than just a few hits padded out with "[[filler (media)|filler]]",{{sfn|Everett|1999|p=91}} and they were primary innovators of the modern music video.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|pp=609–610}} The Shea Stadium show with which they opened their [[The Beatles' 1965 US tour|1965 North American tour]] attracted an estimated 55,600 people,{{sfn|Lewisohn|1992|p=181}} then the largest audience in concert history; Spitz describes the event as a "major breakthrough&nbsp;... a giant step toward reshaping the concert business".{{sfn|Spitz|2005|pp=576–578}} Emulation of their clothing and especially their hairstyles, which became a mark of rebellion, had a global impact on fashion.{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=345}}

According to Gould, the Beatles changed the way people listened to popular music and experienced its role in their lives. From what began as the Beatlemania fad, the group's popularity grew into what was seen as an embodiment of sociocultural movements of the decade. As icons of the [[Counterculture of the 1960s|1960s counterculture]], Gould continues, they became a catalyst for [[bohemianism]] and activism in various social and political arenas, fuelling movements such as [[feminist movement|women's liberation]], [[gay liberation]] and [[environmental movement|environmentalism]].{{sfn|Gould|2007|pp=8–9}} According to Peter Lavezzoli, after the "more popular than Jesus" controversy in 1966, the Beatles felt considerable pressure to say the right things and "began a concerted effort to spread a message of wisdom and higher consciousness".{{sfn|Lavezzoli|2006|p=176}}

Other commentators such as Mikal Gilmore and Todd Leopold have traced the inception of their sociocultural impact earlier, interpreting even the Beatlemania period, particularly on their first visit to the US, as a key moment in the development of generational awareness.<ref name="Gimore (RS Beatles/Dylan/60s)" /><ref name="Leopold (Beatlemania/CNN)">{{cite web |last1=Leopold |first1=Todd |title=Beatles + Sullivan = Revolution: Why Beatlemania Could Never Happen Today |url=https://www.cnn.com/2014/01/30/showbiz/celebrity-news-gossip/beatles-ed-sullivan-50-years-anniversary/ |publisher=CNN|access-date=23 February 2018 |date=31 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180223110942/https://www.cnn.com/2014/01/30/showbiz/celebrity-news-gossip/beatles-ed-sullivan-50-years-anniversary/|archive-date=23 February 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Referring to their appearance on ''the Ed Sullivan Show'' Leopold states: "In many ways, the Sullivan appearance marked the beginning of a cultural revolution&nbsp;... The Beatles were like aliens dropped into the United States of 1964."<ref name="Leopold (Beatlemania/CNN)" /> According to Gilmore:
{{blockquote|Elvis Presley had shown us how rebellion could be fashioned into eye-opening style; the Beatles were showing us how style could have the impact of cultural revelation&nbsp;– or at least how a pop vision might be forged into an unimpeachable consensus.<ref name="Gimore (RS Beatles/Dylan/60s)" />}}

Established in 2009, [[Global Beatles Day]] is an annual holiday on 25 June each year that honours and celebrates the ideals of the Beatles.<ref>{{cite web |last=Desk |first=Lifestyle |title=Global Beatles Day: What is it and why is it celebrated |website=[[The Indian Express]] |date=25 June 2018 |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/art-and-culture/global-beatles-day-what-is-it-and-why-is-it-celebrated-5232622/ | access-date=26 July 2020 | archive-date=4 August 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804084855/https://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/art-and-culture/global-beatles-day-what-is-it-and-why-is-it-celebrated-5232622/ | url-status=live}}</ref> The date was chosen to commemorate the date the group participated in the [[BBC]] programme ''[[Our World (1967 TV program)|Our World]]'' in 1967, performing "[[All You Need Is Love]]" broadcast to an international audience.<ref>{{cite web |last=Christensen |first=Doreen |title=World Beatles Day: Free streaming of all 12 Beatles albums for Prime members |website=[[Sun-Sentinel]] |date=25 June 2018 |url=https://www.sun-sentinel.com/features/deals-shopping/fl-bz-world-beatles-day-free-streaming-free-music-20180625-story.html | access-date=26 July 2020 | archive-date=26 July 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726073851/https://www.sun-sentinel.com/features/deals-shopping/fl-bz-world-beatles-day-free-streaming-free-music-20180625-story.html | url-status=live}}</ref>

== Awards and achievements ==
{{See also|List of awards and nominations received by the Beatles}}
In 1965, Queen Elizabeth II appointed Lennon, McCartney, Harrison and Starr Members of the [[Order of the British Empire]] (MBE).{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=556}} The Beatles won the 1971 Academy Award for [[Academy Award for Best Original Score#1970s|Best Original Song Score]] for the film ''[[Let It Be (1970 film)|Let It Be]]'' (1970).{{sfn|Southall|Perry|2006|p=96}} The recipients of seven Grammy Awards<ref>{{cite web |publisher=[[National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences]] |title=Grammy Past Winners Search |url=https://www.grammy.com/nominees/search?artist=Beatles&title=&year=All&genre=All |access-date=25 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510104927/http://www.grammy.com/nominees/search?artist=Beatles&title=&year=All&genre=All |archive-date=10 May 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> and fifteen [[Ivor Novello Awards]],{{sfn|Harry|2000a|pp=559–560}} the Beatles have six [[Music recording certification|Diamond albums]], as well as 20 Multi-Platinum albums, 16 Platinum albums and six Gold albums in the US.<ref name="RIAAb" /> In the UK, the Beatles have four [[Music recording certification|Multi-Platinum albums]], four [[Music recording certification|Platinum albums]], eight [[Music recording certification|Gold albums]] and one [[Music recording certification|Silver album]].<ref name="BPI2009" /> They were inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] in 1988.<ref name="R&R HoF" />

The [[List of best-selling music artists|best-selling band]] in history, the Beatles have sold more than 600&nbsp;million units {{as of|2012|lc=y}}.<ref name="bbc41012">{{cite web |last=Hotten |first=Russell |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-19800654 |title=The Beatles at 50: From Fab Four to fabulously wealthy |work=BBC Business |date=4 October 2012|access-date=20 August 2020|archive-date=23 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923142215/http://www.bbc.com/news/business-19800654|url-status=live}}</ref>{{refn|group=nb|Another estimate gives total international sales of over 1 billion units,{{sfn|Gould|2007|p=9}} a figure based on EMI's statement and recognised by ''[[Guinness World Records]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/best-selling-group |title=Best-selling group |work=[[Guinness World Records]] |date=19 March 2001 |access-date=23 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191122220820/https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/best-selling-group|archive-date=22 November 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>}} From 1991 to 2009 the Beatles sold 57&nbsp;million albums in United States, according to Nielsen Soundscan.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2009-apr-08-et-beatles8-story.html |newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] |first=Randy |last=Lewis |title=Delayed arrival |date=8 April 2009|access-date=14 October 2022|archive-date=11 April 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090411024440/http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/la-et-beatles8-2009apr08,0,242705.story|url-status=live}}</ref> They have had more [[List of artists by number of UK Albums Chart number ones|number-one albums on the UK charts]], fifteen,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theofficialcharts.com/artist/_/BEATLES/#albums |title=Beatles |year=2010 |publisher=[[Official Charts Company]] |location=[[London]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103114845/http://www.officialcharts.com/artist/_/BEATLES/|archive-date=3 November 2013}}</ref> and sold more singles in the UK, 21.9&nbsp;million, than any other act.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Official Chart Company |title=The Official Singles Charts' Biggest Selling Artists of All Time Revealed |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/chart-news/the-official-singles-charts-biggest-selling-artists-of-all-time-revealed-1431/ |date=4 June 2012 |access-date=24 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120703073546/http://www.officialcharts.com/chart-news/the-official-singles-charts-biggest-selling-artists-of-all-time-revealed-1431/ |archive-date=3 July 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2004, ''Rolling Stone'' ranked the Beatles as the most significant and influential rock music artists of the last 50&nbsp;years.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Costello |first=Elvis |author-link=Elvis Costello |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/lists/100-greatest-artists-of-all-time-19691231/the-beatles-20110420 |title=100 Greatest Artists: The Beatles |magazine=[[Rolling Stone]] |year=2004 |access-date=25 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130621173923/http://www.rollingstone.com/music/lists/100-greatest-artists-of-all-time-19691231/the-beatles-20110420 |archive-date=21 June 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> They ranked number one on ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' magazine's list of the all-time most successful Hot 100 artists, released in 2008 to celebrate the US singles chart's 50th anniversary.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=The Billboard Hot 100 All-Time Top Artists (20-01) |date=11 September 2008 |magazine=Billboard |url=https://www.billboard.com/bbcom/specials/hot100/charts/top100-artists-20.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913150551/https://www.billboard.com/bbcom/specials/hot100/charts/top100-artists-20.shtml |archive-date=13 September 2008 |access-date=13 September 2008}}</ref> {{As of|2017}}, they hold the record for most number-one hits on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100, with twenty.<ref name="hot100">{{cite magazine |first=Kevin |last=Rutherford |url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/chart-beat/7744226/the-beatles-come-together-chart-history-aerosmith-godsmack |title=The Beatles, Aerosmith & Godsmack: A History of 'Come Together' on the Charts |date=30 March 2017 |magazine=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|access-date=31 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170330213322/http://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/chart-beat/7744226/the-beatles-come-together-chart-history-aerosmith-godsmack|archive-date=30 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Recording Industry Association of America]] certifies that the Beatles have sold 183&nbsp;million units in the US, more than any other artist.<ref name="insider">{{cite web |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/best-selling-music-artists-of-all-time-2016-9 |title=The 50 best-selling music artists of all time |last=Clark |first=Travis |date=10 March 2020 |work=Business Insider|access-date=20 August 2020|archive-date=30 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200830191133/https://www.businessinsider.com/best-selling-music-artists-of-all-time-2016-9|url-status=live}}</ref> They were collectively included in ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine's compilation of the [[Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century|20th century's 100 most influential people]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Loder |first=Kurt |author-link=Kurt Loder |title=The Time 100 |url=https://www.time.com/time/time100/artists/profile/beatles.html |date=8 June 1998 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |access-date=31 July 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080822101414/http://www.time.com/time/time100/artists/profile/beatles.html |archive-date=22 August 2008}}</ref> In 2014, they received the [[Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award]].<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/paul-mccartney-and-ringo-starr-share-grammy-stage-for-rare-performance-20140126 |title=Paul McCartney and Ringo Starr Share Grammy Stage for Rare Performance |date=26 January 2014 |magazine=Rolling Stone|access-date=30 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140129235323/http://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/paul-mccartney-and-ringo-starr-share-grammy-stage-for-rare-performance-20140126|archive-date=29 January 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2004 and 2011, ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' named them the greatest artist of all time.<ref>{{cite news |last=Costello |first=Elvis |title=The 100 Greatest Artists of All Time |date=15 April 2004 |url=https://www.elviscostello.info/wiki/index.php/Rolling_Stone,_April_15,_2004| access-date=31 January 2024| archive-date=31 January 2024| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240131193110/https://www.elviscostello.info/wiki/index.php/Rolling_Stone,_April_15,_2004| url-status=live}}</ref>

On 16 January each year, beginning in 2001, people celebrate World Beatles Day under [[UNESCO]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Мир отмечает день The Beatles|trans-title=The world is celebrating the Beatles Day |url=https://rg.ru/2013/01/16/beatles.html |newspaper=[[Rossiyskaya Gazeta]] |access-date=4 January 2020 |language=ru |date=16 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203022710/https://rg.ru/2013/01/16/beatles.html |archive-date=3 December 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Aghadadashov |first1=Jafar |title=World marks January 16 The Beatles Day |url=https://report.az/en/show-business/world-marks-january-16-the-beatles-day/ |website=report.az |access-date=4 January 2020 |date=16 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203022708/https://report.az/en/show-business/world-marks-january-16-the-beatles-day/ |archive-date=3 December 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2007, the Beatles became the first band to feature on a [[Great Britain commemorative stamps 2000–2009|series of UK postage stamps]] issued by the [[Royal Mail]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Queen – not that one – to appear on postage stamps |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2020/jun/23/queen-to-appear-on-postage-stamps |access-date=28 June 2020 |newspaper=The Guardian |archive-date=28 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200628004306/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2020/jun/23/queen-to-appear-on-postage-stamps |url-status=live}}</ref> Earlier in 1999, the [[United States Postal Service]] issued a stamp dedicated to the Beatles and ''Yellow Submarine''.<ref>[https://postalmuseum.si.edu/us-postage-and-the-beatles-the-1999-stamp-the-2003-proofs-and-future-expectations U.S. Postage and the Beatles: The 1999 Stamp, the 2003 Proofs and Future Expectations] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112012018/https://postalmuseum.si.edu/us-postage-and-the-beatles-the-1999-stamp-the-2003-proofs-and-future-expectations |date=12 January 2023}}. Smithsonian's National Postal Museum. 27 March 2014</ref>

== Personnel ==
{{Further|List of members of bands featuring members of the Beatles}}
{{col-float-begin}}
'''Principal members'''
* [[John Lennon]]&nbsp;– vocals, guitars, keyboards, harmonica, bass <small>(1960–1969; died 1980)</small>
* [[Paul McCartney]]&nbsp;– vocals, bass, guitars, keyboards, drums <small>(1960–1970)</small>
* [[George Harrison]]&nbsp;– guitars, vocals, sitar, keyboards, bass <small>(1960–1970; died 2001)</small>
* [[Ringo Starr]]&nbsp;– drums, percussion, vocals <small>(1962–1970)</small>
{{col-float-break}}
'''Early members'''
* [[Stuart Sutcliffe]]&nbsp;– bass, vocals <small>(1960–1961; died 1962)</small>
* [[Tommy Moore (musician)|Tommy Moore]]&nbsp;– drums <small>(1960; died 1981)</small>
* [[Norman Chapman]]&nbsp;– drums <small>(1960; died 1995)</small>
* [[Pete Best]]&nbsp;– drums, vocals <small>(1960–1962)</small>
* [[Chas Newby]]&nbsp;– bass <small>(1960; died 2023)</small>

'''Touring musicians'''
* [[Jimmie Nicol]]&nbsp;– drums <small>(1964)</small>
{{col-float-end}}

=== Timeline ===
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 at:26/05/1967
 at:27/11/1967
 at:22/11/1968
 at:13/01/1969
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 at:08/05/1970}}

== Discography ==
{{Main|The Beatles albums discography|The Beatles singles discography|List of songs recorded by the Beatles}}

The Beatles' core catalogue consists of thirteen studio albums and one compilation album which collects all the UK non-album singles and [[Extended play|EP]] tracks:{{sfn|Lewisohn|1988|pp=200–201}}{{refn|group=nb|According to Lewisohn on pg. 201, the ''Past Masters'' compilation of singles and EP tracks was originally released as two separate albums, Volumes One and Two in 1988. However, they were later merged into one compilation.}}
{{div col}}
* ''[[Please Please Me]]'' (1963)
* ''[[With the Beatles]]'' (1963)
* ''[[A Hard Day's Night (album)|A Hard Day's Night]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Beatles for Sale]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Help!]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Rubber Soul]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Revolver (Beatles album)|Revolver]]'' (1966)
* ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]'' (1967)
* ''[[Magical Mystery Tour]]'' (1967)
* ''[[The Beatles (album)|The Beatles]]'' ("The White Album") (1968)
* ''[[Yellow Submarine (album)|Yellow Submarine]]'' (1969)
* ''[[Abbey Road]]'' (1969)
* ''[[Let It Be (album)|Let It Be]]'' (1970)
* ''[[Past Masters]]'' (1988, compilation)
{{div col end}}

== Song catalogue ==
Until 1969, the Beatles' catalogue was published almost exclusively by [[Northern Songs]], formed in February 1963 by music publisher [[Dick James]] specifically for Lennon and McCartney, though it later acquired songs by other artists. The company was organised with James and his partner, Emmanuel Silver, owning a controlling interest, variously described as 51% or 50% plus one share. McCartney had 20%. Reports again vary concerning Lennon's portion&nbsp;– 19 or 20%&nbsp;– and Brian Epstein's&nbsp;– 9 or 10%&nbsp;– which he received in lieu of a 25% band management fee.{{sfn|Southall|Perry|2006|pp=15–17}}{{sfn|Norman|1996|pp=169–71, 368–369}}{{sfn|Brown|Gaines|2002|p=178}} In 1965, the company went public. 5&nbsp;million shares were created, of which the original principals retained 3.75&nbsp;million. James and Silver each received 937,500&nbsp;shares (18.75% of 5&nbsp;million); Lennon and McCartney each received 750,000&nbsp;shares (15%); and Epstein's management company, NEMS Enterprises, received 375,000&nbsp;shares (7.5%). Of the 1.25&nbsp;million shares put up for sale, Harrison and Starr each acquired 40,000.{{sfn|Southall|Perry|2006|pp=37–38}} At the time of the stock offering, Lennon and McCartney renewed their three-year publishing contracts, binding them to Northern Songs until 1973.{{sfn|Southall|Perry|2006|p=42}}

Harrison created [[Harrisongs]] to represent his Beatles compositions, but signed a three-year contract with Northern Songs that gave it the copyright to his work through March 1968, which included "[[Taxman]]" and "[[Within You Without You]]".{{sfn|Southall|Perry|2006|p=45}} The songs on which Starr received co-writing credit before 1968, such as "[[What Goes On (Beatles song)|What Goes On]]" and "[[Flying (Beatles instrumental)|Flying]]", were also Northern Songs copyrights.{{sfn|Southall|Perry|2006|pp=46–47}} Harrison did not renew his contract with Northern Songs when it ended, signing instead with [[Apple Corps|Apple Publishing]] while retaining the copyright to his work from that point on. Harrison thus owned the rights to his later Beatles songs such as "[[While My Guitar Gently Weeps]]" and "Something". That year, as well, Starr created [[Startling Music]], which holds the rights to his Beatles compositions, "Don't Pass Me By" and "[[Octopus's Garden]]".{{sfn|Southall|Perry|2006|pp=60–61}}{{sfn|MacDonald|2005|p=351}}

In March 1969, James arranged to sell his and his partner's shares of Northern Songs to the British broadcasting company [[Associated Television]] (ATV), founded by impresario [[Lew Grade]], without first informing the Beatles. The band then made a bid to gain a controlling interest by attempting to work out a deal with a consortium of London brokerage firms that had accumulated a 14% holding.{{sfn|Norman|1996|pp=369–372}} The deal collapsed over the objections of Lennon, who declared, "I'm sick of being fucked about by men in suits sitting on their fat arses in [[City of London|the City]]".{{sfn|Norman|1996|p=372}} By the end of May, ATV had acquired a majority stake in Northern Songs, controlling nearly the entire Lennon–McCartney catalogue, as well as any future material until 1973.{{sfn|Miles|1998|p=296}} In frustration, Lennon and McCartney sold their shares to ATV in late October 1969.{{sfn|Everett|1999|p=236}}

In 1981, financial losses by ATV's parent company, [[Associated Communications Corporation]] (ACC), led it to attempt to sell its music division. According to authors Brian Southall and Rupert Perry, Grade contacted McCartney, offering ATV Music and Northern Songs for $30&nbsp;million.{{sfn|Southall|Perry|2006|p=129}} According to an account McCartney gave in 1995, he met with Grade and explained he was interested solely in the Northern Songs catalogue if Grade were ever willing to "separate off" that portion of ATV Music. Soon afterwards, Grade offered to sell him Northern Songs for £20&nbsp;million, giving the ex-Beatle "a week or so" to decide. By McCartney's account, he and Ono countered with a £5&nbsp;million bid that was rejected.{{sfn|Southall|Perry|2006|p=130}} According to reports at the time, Grade refused to separate Northern Songs and turned down an offer of £21–25&nbsp;million from McCartney and Ono for Northern Songs. In 1982, ACC was acquired in a [[takeover]] by Australian business magnate [[Robert Holmes à Court]] for £60&nbsp;million.{{sfn|Southall|Perry|2006|pp=130, 139}}

In 1985, [[Michael Jackson]] purchased ATV for a reported $47.5&nbsp;million. The acquisition gave him control over the publishing rights to more than 200 Beatles songs, as well as 40,000 other copyrights.{{sfn|Southall|Perry|2006|pp=140, 174, 176}} In 1995, in a deal that earned him a reported $110&nbsp;million, Jackson merged his music publishing business with [[Sony]], creating a new company, [[Sony/ATV Music Publishing]], in which he held a 50% stake. The merger made the new company, then valued at over half a billion dollars, the third-largest music publisher in the world.{{sfn|Southall|Perry|2006|p=198}} In 2016, Sony acquired Jackson's share of Sony/ATV from the Jackson estate for $750&nbsp;million.<ref>{{cite news |last=Christman |first=Ed |url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/7526542/sony-atv-michael-jackson-publishing-acquisition-completed |title=Sony Finalizes Acquisition of Michael Jackson Estate's Stake in Sony/ATV Publishing |magazine=Billboard |date=30 September 2016 |access-date=2 June 2020 |archive-date=12 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112021346/https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/7526542/sony-atv-michael-jackson-publishing-acquisition-completed |url-status=live}}</ref>

Despite the lack of publishing rights to most of their songs, Lennon's estate and McCartney continue to receive their respective shares of the writers' royalties, which together are 33{{frac|3}}% of total commercial proceeds in the US and which vary elsewhere around the world between 50 and 55%.{{sfn|Southall|Perry|2006|p=195}} Two of Lennon and McCartney's earliest songs&nbsp;– "Love Me Do" and "P.S. I Love You"&nbsp;– were published by an EMI subsidiary, Ardmore & Beechwood, before they signed with James. McCartney acquired their publishing rights from Ardmore{{sfn|Southall|Perry|2006|pp=192–193}} in 1978,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cocatalog.loc.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?v1=13&ti=1,13&SC=Author&SA=Ardmore%20%26%20Beechwood%2C%20Ltd%2E&PID=Upy2LYQ_qgX3JEfWR3-tuPzH0eAB&SEQ=20190215123104&SID=4 |title=Public Catalog |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=19 May 1978 |website=cocatalog.loc.gov |publisher=U.S. Copyright Office |access-date=15 February 2019 |archive-date=13 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200613172517/https://cocatalog.loc.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?v1=13&ti=1,13&SC=Author&SA=Ardmore%20%26%20Beechwood%2C%20Ltd%2E&PID=Upy2LYQ_qgX3JEfWR3-tuPzH0eAB&SEQ=20190215123104&SID=4 |url-status=live}}</ref> and they are the only two Beatles songs owned by McCartney's company MPL Communications.{{sfn|Harry|2002|p=536}} On 18 January 2017, McCartney filed a suit in the [[United States district court]] against Sony/ATV Music Publishing seeking to reclaim ownership of his share of the Lennon–McCartney song catalogue beginning in 2018. Under US copyright law, for works published before 1978 the author can reclaim copyrights assigned to a publisher after 56&nbsp;years.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2017/jan/18/paul-mccartney-sue-sony-rights-beatles-songs |title=We can't work it out: Paul McCartney to sue Sony for rights to Beatles classics |date=18 January 2017 |newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=19 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170119012029/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2017/jan/18/paul-mccartney-sue-sony-rights-beatles-songs|archive-date=19 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-38675147 |title=Sir Paul McCartney sues Sony over Beatles songs |date=19 January 2017 |agency=BBC|access-date=19 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170119114251/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-38675147|archive-date=19 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> McCartney and Sony agreed to a confidential settlement in June 2017.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2017/jul/04/beatles-song-rights-dispute-paul-mccartney-and-sony-atv-work-it-out |title=Beatles song rights dispute: Paul McCartney and Sony ATV work it out |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=4 July 2017 |newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=13 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180504082753/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2017/jul/04/beatles-song-rights-dispute-paul-mccartney-and-sony-atv-work-it-out|archive-date=4 May 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://fortune.com/2017/06/30/sony-beatles-copyright/ |title=Paul McCartney Settles with Sony/ATV to Reclaim Beatles' Song Copyright |agency=Reuters |work=Fortune |date=30 June 2017|access-date=13 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180616153758/http://fortune.com/2017/06/30/sony-beatles-copyright/|archive-date=16 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Selected filmography ==
{{Main|The Beatles in film}}

'''Fictionalised'''
* ''[[A Hard Day's Night (film)|A Hard Day's Night]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Help! (film)|Help!]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Magical Mystery Tour (film)|Magical Mystery Tour]]'' (1967)
* ''[[Yellow Submarine (film)|Yellow Submarine]]'' (1968) (brief cameo)

'''Documentaries and filmed performances'''
* ''[[The Beatles at Shea Stadium]]'' (1966)
* ''[[Let It Be (1970 film)|Let It Be]]'' (1970)
* ''[[The Compleat Beatles]]'' (1982)
* ''[[It Was Twenty Years Ago Today (film)|It Was Twenty Years Ago Today]]'' (1987) (about ''Sgt. Pepper'')
* ''[[The Beatles Anthology (TV series)|The Beatles Anthology]]'' (1995)
* ''[[1 (Beatles album)#1+|The Beatles: 1+]]'' (2015) (collection of digitally restored music videos)
* ''[[The Beatles: Eight Days a Week]]'' (2016) (about Beatlemania and touring years)
* ''[[The Beatles: Get Back]]'' (2021)
* ''Now and Then: The Last Beatles Song'' (2023) (short film about the creation of "[[Now and Then (Beatles song)|Now and Then]]")

== Concert tours ==
{{Main|List of the Beatles' live performances}}
{{col-float-begin}}
'''Headlining'''
* 1963 UK tours (winter–autumn)
* Autumn 1963 Sweden tour
* Winter 1964 North American tour
* Spring 1964 UK tour
* [[The Beatles' 1964 world tour|1964 world tour]]
* [[The Beatles' 1964 North American tour|1964 North American tour]]
* [[The Beatles' 1965 European tour|1965 European tour]]
* [[The Beatles' 1965 US tour|1965 US tour]]
* [[The Beatles' 1965 UK tour|1965 UK tour]]
* [[The Beatles' 1966 tour of Germany, Japan and the Philippines|1966 tour of Germany, Japan and the Philippines]]
* [[The Beatles' 1966 US tour|1966 US tour]]
{{col-float-break}}
'''Co-headlining'''
* [[The Beatles Winter 1963 Helen Shapiro Tour|Winter 1963 Helen Shapiro Tour]]
* Spring 1963 [[Tommy Roe]]/[[Chris Montez]] UK tour
* [[Roy Orbison/The Beatles Tour]]
{{col-float-end}}

== See also ==
* [[Outline of the Beatles]]
* [[The Beatles timeline]]
* [[Grammy Award records#Most Grammys won by a group|Grammy Award records – most Grammys won by a group]]
* [[List of songs recorded by the Beatles]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group=nb}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last=Austerlitz |first=Saul |year=2007 |title=Money for Nothing: A History of the Music Video, from The Beatles to The White Stripes |publisher=[[University of Michigan Press]] |location=Ann Arbor |isbn=978-0-7119-7520-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Badman |first=Keith |year=1999 |edition=2001 |title=The Beatles After the Breakup 1970–2000: A Day-by-Day Diary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wTZRwz8N9jIC&pg=PP1 |publisher=Omnibus |location=London |isbn=978-0-7119-8307-6 |access-date=31 March 2014 |archive-date=22 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230122040554/https://books.google.com/books?id=wTZRwz8N9jIC&pg=PP1 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |author=The Beatles |year=2000 |title=The Beatles Anthology |publisher=[[Chronicle Books]] |location=San Francisco |isbn=978-0-8118-2684-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HWuQu8EMDKcC |access-date=31 March 2014 |archive-date=21 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230121092524/https://books.google.com/books?id=HWuQu8EMDKcC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Benson |first=Bruce Ellis |year=2003 |title=The Improvisation of Musical Dialogue: A Phenomenology of Music |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qJ1Q7ZeRr5EC&pg=PP1 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge and New York |isbn=978-0-521-00932-4 |access-date=31 March 2014 |archive-date=22 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230122040553/https://books.google.com/books?id=qJ1Q7ZeRr5EC&pg=PP1 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Boyd |first=Pattie |date=2008 |author-link=Pattie Boyd |title=Wonderful Tonight: George Harrison, Eric Clapton, and Me |url=https://archive.org/details/wonderfultonight00boyd_0 |publisher=[[Three Rivers Press]] |isbn=978-0-307-40783-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Peter |year=2002 |author-link=Peter Brown (music industry) |last2=Gaines |first2=Steven |author-link2=Steven Gaines |title=[[The Love You Make: An Insider's Story of The Beatles]] |publisher=[[New American Library]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-451-20735-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Campbell |first=Michael |year=2008 |title=Popular Music in America: The Beat Goes On |publisher=Wadsworth |location=East Windsor, CT |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nIZSM3zxNUEC |isbn=978-0-495-50530-3 |access-date=31 March 2014}}
* {{cite book |last=Davies |first=Hunter |year=1968 |title=The Beatles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WpsszVLFsMEC&pg=PP1 |edition=Revised 2009 |location=New York & London |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company|W. W. Norton]] |author-link=Hunter Davies |isbn=978-0-393-33874-4 |access-date=31 March 2014 |archive-date=22 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230122040554/https://books.google.com/books?id=WpsszVLFsMEC&pg=PP1 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Doggett |first=Peter |year=2009 |title=You Never Give Me Your Money: The Beatles After the Breakup |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=luOMJFxe-bYC |edition=1st US hardcover |location=New York |publisher=[[Harper (publisher)|Harper]] |isbn=978-0-06-177446-1 |access-date=31 March 2014}}
* {{cite book |last=Doggett |first=Peter |title=You Never Give Me Your Money: The Beatles After the Breakup |publisher=It Books |location=New York |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-06-177418-8}}
* {{cite book |last1=Emerick |first1=Geoff |year=2006 |author-link=Geoff Emerick |last2=Massey |first2=Howard |title=Here, There and Everywhere: My Life Recording the Music of The Beatles |location=New York |publisher=[[Gotham Books|Gotham]] |isbn=978-1-59240-179-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Everett |first=Walter |year=1999 |title=The Beatles as Musicians: Revolver through the Anthology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eTkHAldi4bEC&pg=PP1 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford and New York |isbn=978-0-19-512941-0 |access-date=31 March 2014 |archive-date=21 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230121092004/https://books.google.com/books?id=eTkHAldi4bEC&pg=PP1 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Everett |first=Walter |year=2001 |title=The Beatles As Musicians: The Quarry Men through Rubber Soul |url=https://archive.org/details/beatlesasmusicia00ever |url-access=registration |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford and New York |isbn=978-0-19-514105-4 |access-date=31 March 2014}}
* {{cite book |last=Fisher |first=Marc |year=2007 |title=Something in the Air |url=https://archive.org/details/somethinginairra00fish |url-access=registration |publisher=[[Random House]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-375-50907-0 |access-date=31 March 2014}}
* {{cite book |last=Frontani |first=Michael R. |year=2007 |title=The Beatles: Image and the Media |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QHtMYEl4QxsC&pg=PP1 |publisher=University Press of Mississippi |isbn=978-1-57806-965-1 |access-date = 31 March 2014 |archive-date = 22 January 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230122040554/https://books.google.com/books?id=QHtMYEl4QxsC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live}}
* {{Gilliland |show=27 |title=The British Are Coming! The British Are Coming!: The U.S.A. is invaded by a wave of long-haired English rockers}}
* {{cite book |last=Goodman |first=Fred |location=Boston, New York |year=2015 |title=Allen Klein: The Man Who Bailed Out the Beatles, Made the Stones, and Transformed Rock & Roll |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]] |isbn=978-0-547-89686-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Gould |first=Jonathan |year=2007 |title=Can't Buy Me Love: The Beatles, Britain and America |publisher=Three Rivers Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-307-35338-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Granata |first=Charles L. |title=I Just Wasn't Made for These Times: Brian Wilson and the Making of the Beach Boys' Pet Sounds |date=2003 |publisher=Unanimous |location=London |isbn=978-1-55652-507-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/wouldntitbenice00char}}
* {{cite book |last=Harris |first=Jonathan |year=2005 |chapter=Introduction: Abstraction and Empathy – Psychedelic Distortion and the Meaning of the 1960s |editor-last=Grunenberg |editor-first=Christoph |editor2=Jonathan Harris |title=Summer of Love: Psychedelic Art, Social Crisis and Counterculture in the 1960s |publisher=[[Liverpool University Press]] |location=Liverpool |isbn=978-0-85323-919-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Harry |first=Bill |year=2000a |author-link=Bill Harry |title=The Beatles Encyclopedia: Revised and Updated |publisher=[[Virgin Books|Virgin]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-7535-0481-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Harry |first=Bill |year=2003 |title=The George Harrison Encyclopedia |publisher=Virgin |location=London |isbn=978-0-7535-0822-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Harry |first=Bill |year=2000b |title=The John Lennon Encyclopedia |publisher=Virgin |location=London |isbn=978-0-7535-0404-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Harry |first=Bill |year=2002 |title=The Paul McCartney Encyclopedia |publisher=Virgin |location=London |isbn=978-0-7535-0716-2}}
* {{cite book |first=Nick |last=Hasted |title=You Really Got Me: The Story of The Kinks |publisher=Omnibus Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-78558-851-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Hertsgaard |first=Mark |author-link=Mark Hertsgaard |year=1995 |chapter=We All Want to Change the World: Drugs, Politics, and Spirituality |title=A Day in the Life: The Music and Artistry of the Beatles |chapter-url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/67755284/We-All-Want-to-Change-the-World-Drugs-Politics-and-Spirituality |publisher=[[Dell Publishing|Delacorte Press]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-385-31517-3 |access-date=31 March 2014 |archive-date=17 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140317015412/http://www.scribd.com/doc/67755284/We-All-Want-to-Change-the-World-Drugs-Politics-and-Spirituality |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Ingham |first=Chris |year=2006 |title=The Rough Guide to The Beatles |location=London |publisher=[[Rough Guides]] |isbn=978-1-84353-720-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Inglis |first=Ian |year=2008 |chapter=Cover Story: Magic, Myth and Music |title=Sgt. Pepper and the Beatles: It Was Forty Years Ago Today |editor-last=Julien |editor-first=Olivier |location=Aldershot, UK, and Burlington, VT |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing|Ashgate]] |isbn=978-0-7546-6249-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Larkin |first=Colin |year=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York, NY |title=[[Encyclopedia of Popular Music]] |isbn=978-0-19-531373-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Lavezzoli |first=Peter |year=2006 |title=The Dawn of Indian Music in the West: Bhairavi |location=New York and London |publisher=[[Continuum International Publishing Group|Continuum]] |isbn=978-0-8264-1815-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OSZKCXtx-wEC |access-date=31 March 2014 |archive-date=22 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230122040555/https://books.google.com/books?id=OSZKCXtx-wEC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Lewisohn |first=Mark |year=1988 |author-link=Mark Lewisohn |title=The Complete Beatles Recording Sessions |publisher=Harmony |location=New York |isbn=978-0-517-57066-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Lewisohn |first=Mark |year=1992 |edition=2010 |location=Chicago |title=The Complete Beatles Chronicle:The Definitive Day-By-Day Guide To the Beatles' Entire Career |publisher=[[Chicago Review Press]] |isbn=978-1-56976-534-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Lewisohn |first=Mark |author-link=Mark Lewisohn |title=The Beatles – All These Years, Volume One: Tune In |publisher=Crown Archetype |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4000-8305-3}}
* {{cite book |last=MacDonald |first=Ian |year=2005 |author-link=Ian MacDonald |title=Revolution in the Head: The Beatles' Records and the Sixties |edition=2nd revised |publisher=Pimlico |location=London |isbn=978-1-84413-828-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Martin |first=George |author-link=George Martin |year=1979 |title=All You Need Is Ears |publisher=St. Marten's Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-312-11482-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Yoio9MewhcC |access-date=31 March 2014}}
* {{cite book |last=McNeil |first=Alex |year=1996 |title=Total Television: The Comprehensive Guide to Programming From 1948 to the Present |location=New York City |publisher=Penguin Books |edition=4th |isbn=978-0-14-024916-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Miles |first=Barry |year=1997 |author-link=Barry Miles |title=Paul McCartney: Many Years from Now |publisher=[[Henry Holt and Company]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8050-5249-7|title-link=Paul McCartney: Many Years from Now}}
* {{cite book |last=Miles |first=Barry |year=1998 |title=The Beatles: A Diary – An Intimate Day by Day History |location=London |publisher=Omnibus |isbn=978-0-7119-9196-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Miles |first=Barry |title=The Beatles Diary Volume 1: The Beatles Years |publisher=Omnibus Press |location=London |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-7119-8308-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Neaverson |first=Bob |title=The Beatles Movies |publisher=Cassell |location=London |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-304-33796-5 |url=http://www.beatlesmovies.co.uk/magical-mystery-tour/background.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091002072940/http://www.beatlesmovies.co.uk/magical-mystery-tour/background.asp|archive-date=2 October 2009 |via=beatlesmovies.co.uk (chapter: "Magical Mystery Tour Part 1 – Background and Production")}}
* {{cite book |last=Norman |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Norman (author) |title=Shout!: The Beatles in Their Generation |location=New York |publisher=Fireside |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-684-43254-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Norman |first=Philip |title=John Lennon: The Life |location=New York |publisher=Ecco/HarperCollins |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-06-075401-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/johnlennonlife00norm_0}}
* {{cite book |last1=Pang |first1=May |title=Instamatic Karma: Photographs of John Lennon |date=2008 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-1-4299-9397-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YLCmcCgjvfYC&q=in+the+unlikely+backdrop+of+the+Polynesian+Village+Hotel+at+Disney+World%2C+ended+the+greatest+rock+%27n%27+roll+band+in+history&pg=PT118|access-date=7 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160111145120/https://books.google.cl/books?id=YLCmcCgjvfYC&pg=PT118#v=onepage&q=in%20the%20unlikely%20backdrop%20of%20the%20Polynesian%20Village%20Hotel%20at%20Disney%20World%2C%20ended%20the%20greatest%20rock%20'n'%20roll%20band%20in%20history|archive-date=11 January 2016|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |author=Pawlowski, Gareth L. |title=How They Became The Beatles |publisher=McDonald & Co (Publishers) Ltd |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-356-19052-5 |ref={{SfnRef|Pawlowski|1990}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Pedler |first=Dominic |year=2003 |title=The Songwriting Secrets of The Beatles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fts1uK4ceJ8C&pg=PP1 |publisher=Omnibus |location=London |isbn=978-0-7119-8167-6 |access-date=31 March 2014 |archive-date=22 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230122041059/https://books.google.com/books?id=fts1uK4ceJ8C&pg=PP1 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Rodriguez |first=Robert |year=2010 |title=Fab Four FAQ 2.0: The Beatles' Solo Years, 1970–1980 |location=New York |publisher=Backbeat |isbn=978-0-87930-968-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Sandford |first=Christopher |author-link=Christopher Sandford (biographer) |year=2006 |title=McCartney |location=New York |publisher=[[Carroll & Graf Publishers|Carroll & Graf]] |isbn=978-0-7867-1614-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/mccartney00sand}}
* {{cite book |last=Schaffner |first=Nicholas|author-link=Nicholas Schaffner |title=The Beatles Forever |publisher=McGraw-Hill |location=New York, NY |year=1978 |isbn=978-0-07-055087-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/beatlesforever00scha}}
* {{cite book |last1=Schinder |first1=Scott |year=2007 |last2=Schwartz |first2=Andy |title=Icons of Rock: An Encyclopedia of the Legends Who Changed Music Forever |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group|Greenwood Press]] |location=Westport, CT |isbn=978-0-313-33845-8}}
* {{cite book |last1=Southall |first1=Brian |first2=Rupert |last2=Perry |year=2006 |title=Northern Songs: The True Story of the Beatles Song Publishing Empire |publisher=Omnibus |location=London |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HWSRvGfa3-sC |isbn=978-1-84609-237-4 |access-date=31 March 2014 |archive-date=21 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230121092522/https://books.google.com/books?id=HWSRvGfa3-sC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Sheff |first=David |editor-last=Golson |editor-first=G. Barry |publisher=Playboy |year=1981 |title=The Playboy Interviews with John Lennon and Yoko Ono |isbn=978-0-87223-705-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/playboyinterview00lenn_0}}
* {{cite book |last=Spitz |first=Bob |year=2005 |author-link=Bob Spitz |title=The Beatles: The Biography |publisher=[[Little, Brown and Company|Little, Brown]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-316-80352-6|title-link=The Beatles: The Biography}}
* {{cite book |last=Spizer |first=Bruce |year=2004 |title=The Beatles Are Coming! The Birth of Beatlemania in America |publisher=498 Productions |location=New Orleans |isbn=978-0-9662649-9-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Strong |first=Martin |year=2004 |title=The Great Rock Discography |publisher=[[Canongate Books|Canongate]] |location=Edinburgh and New York |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_WoRAPJQ58sC |isbn=978-1-84195-615-2 |access-date=31 March 2014 |archive-date=22 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230122041057/https://books.google.com/books?id=_WoRAPJQ58sC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Turner |first=Steve|author-link=Steve Turner (writer) |title=Beatles '66: The Revolutionary Year |year=2016 |publisher=Ecco |location=New York, NY |isbn=978-0-06-247558-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Winn |first=John C. |year=2008 |title=Way Beyond Compare: The Beatles' Recorded Legacy, Volume One, 1957–1965 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UwvYhxcBr5oC |publisher=Three Rivers Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-307-45157-6 |access-date=31 March 2014 |archive-date=22 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230122041057/https://books.google.com/books?id=UwvYhxcBr5oC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Winn |first=John C. |year=2009 |title=That Magic Feeling: The Beatles' Recorded Legacy, Volume Two, 1966–1970 |publisher=Three Rivers Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-307-45239-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LdsMqbAQJWgC |access-date=31 March 2014}}
* {{cite book |last=Womack |first=Kenneth |year=2007 |title=Long and Winding Roads: The Evolving Artistry of the Beatles |publisher=Continuum |location=London & New York |isbn=978-0-8264-1746-6}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last=Astley |first=John |year=2006 |title=Why Don't We Do It In The Road? The Beatles Phenomenon |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_JZzwWc6bOlIC |publisher=The Company of Writers |isbn=978-0-9551834-7-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Barrow |first=Tony |year=2005 |title=John, Paul, George, Ringo & Me: The Real Beatles Story |publisher=Thunder's Mouth |location=New York |isbn=978-1-56025-882-7}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bramwell |first1=Tony |year=2006 |last2=Kingsland |first2=Rosemary |title=Magical Mystery Tours: My Life with the Beatles |location=New York |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=978-0-312-33044-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Braun |first=Michael |year=1964 |title=Love Me Do: The Beatles' Progress |location=London |publisher=Penguin |edition=1995 reprint |isbn=978-0-14-002278-0}}
* {{cite book |last1=Carr |first1=Roy |year=1975 |last2=Tyler |first2=Tony |location=New York |title=The Beatles: An Illustrated Record |publisher=Harmony Books |isbn=978-0-517-52045-1}}
* {{cite book |title=A Cellarful of Noise |last=Epstein |first=Brian| author-link = Brian Epstein |year=1964 |publisher=[[Byron Preiss]] |isbn=978-0-671-01196-3 |oclc=39211052| title-link= A Cellarful of Noise}}
* {{cite book |author=((Federal Bureau of Investigation)) |author-link=FBI |year=2007 |title=The Beatles: The FBI Files |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q-StswEACAAJ&pg=PA1 |publisher=Filiquarian |isbn=978-1-59986-256-9 |access-date=5 November 2023 |archive-date=5 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231105155731/https://books.google.com/books?id=q-StswEACAAJ&pg=PA1 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Greene |first=Doyle |year=2016 |title=Rock, Counterculture and the Avant-Garde, 1966–1970: How the Beatles, Frank Zappa and the Velvet Underground Defined an Era |publisher=McFarland |location=Jefferson, NC |isbn=978-1-4766-6214-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Harry |first=Bill |location=Poole, Dorset |title=The Book Of Beatle Lists |publisher=Javelin |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-7137-1521-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Kirchherr |first=Astrid |author-link=Astrid Kirchherr |author2=Voormann, Klaus |title=Hamburg Days |location=Guildford, Surrey |publisher=Genesis Publications |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-904351-73-6|author2-link=Klaus Voormann}}
* {{cite book |last=Lennon |first=Cynthia |year=2005 |author-link=Cynthia Lennon |title=John |url=https://archive.org/details/john0len20lenn |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=Crown Publishers |isbn=978-0-307-33855-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Mansfield |first=Ken |author-link=Ken Mansfield |title=The White Book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Je7C3JHRs7UC&q=The%20White%20Book&pg=PP1 |publisher=Thomas Nelson |location=Nashville, TN |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-59555-101-6 |access-date=31 March 2014 |archive-date=22 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230122041059/https://books.google.com/books?id=Je7C3JHRs7UC&q=The%20White%20Book&pg=PP1 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Martin |first1=George |author-link=George Martin |last2=Pearson |first2=William |title=Summer of Love: The Making of Sgt. Pepper |publisher=Macmillan |location=London |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-333-60398-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Riley |first=Tim |title=Lennon: The Man, the Myth, the Music – The Definitive Life |url=https://archive.org/details/lennonmanmythmus00rile |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=Hyperion/HarperCollins |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4013-2452-0}}
* {{cite book |last1=Sheffield |first1=Rob |title=Dreaming the Beatles |date=2017 |publisher=Harper Collins |location=New York |isbn=978-0-06-220765-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Turner |first=Steve |author-link=Steve Turner (writer) |title=A Hard Day's Write: The Stories Behind Every Beatles Song |edition=3rd |publisher=Harper Paperbacks |location=New York |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-06-084409-7}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|date=3 July 2015|The Beatles, Part 1.ogg|The Beatles, Part 2.ogg|The Beatles - Part 3.ogg}}
{{Sister project links
 |b= no|c= Category:The Beatles|d= Q1299|m= no|mw= no|n= Category:The Beatles|q= The Beatles|s=no |species=no |v=no |voy=no |wikt=Beatles}}
* {{Official website}}
* {{Twitter}}
* {{Amazon Music artist|B00GB0QTOY}}
* [https://archive.org/search?query=the+Beatles+ The Beatles] on the [[Internet Archive]]
* [https://vault.fbi.gov/The%20Beatles The Beatles] – [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] file
* {{citation |hdl=1903.1/4593 |title=The Hugo Keesing Collection on the Beatles |publisher=University of Maryland}}
<!--Please discuss on the talk page before adding any more links. Thank you. -->

{{The Beatles main|state=expanded}}
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<li id="4.a">for the avoidance of doubt, Section [[#2.a.1|2(a)(1)]] grants You the right to extract, reuse, reproduce, and Share all or a substantial portion of the contents of the database;</li>
<li id="4.b">if You include all or a substantial portion of the database contents in a database in which You have Sui Generis Database Rights, then the database in which You have Sui Generis Database Rights (but not its individual contents) is Adapted Material, including for purposes of Section [[#3.b|3(b)]]; and</li>
<li id="4.c">You must comply with the conditions in Section [[#3.a|3(a)]] if You Share all or a substantial portion of the contents of the database.</li>
</ol>
For the avoidance of doubt, this Section [[#4|4]] supplements and does not replace Your obligations under this Public License where the Licensed Rights include other Copyright and Similar Rights.

== <span id="5">Section 5 – Disclaimer of Warranties and Limitation of Liability.</span> ==
<ol type="a">
<li id="5.a">'''Unless otherwise separately undertaken by the Licensor, to the extent possible, the Licensor offers the Licensed Material as-is and as-available, and makes no representations or warranties of any kind concerning the Licensed Material, whether express, implied, statutory, or other. This includes, without limitation, warranties of title, merchantability, fitness for a particular purpose, non-infringement, absence of latent or other defects, accuracy, or the presence or absence of errors, whether or not known or discoverable. Where disclaimers of warranties are not allowed in full or in part, this disclaimer may not apply to You.'''</li>
<li id="5.b">'''To the extent possible, in no event will the Licensor be liable to You on any legal theory (including, without limitation, negligence) or otherwise for any direct, special, indirect, incidental, consequential, punitive, exemplary, or other losses, costs, expenses, or damages arising out of this Public License or use of the Licensed Material, even if the Licensor has been advised of the possibility of such losses, costs, expenses, or damages. Where a limitation of liability is not allowed in full or in part, this limitation may not apply to You.'''</li>
<li id="5.c">The disclaimer of warranties and limitation of liability provided above shall be interpreted in a manner that, to the extent possible, most closely approximates an absolute disclaimer and waiver of all liability.</li>
</ol>

== <span id="6">Section 6 – Term and Termination.</span> ==
<ol type="a">
<li id="6.a">This Public License applies for the term of the Copyright and Similar Rights licensed here. However, if You fail to comply with this Public License, then Your rights under this Public License terminate automatically.</li>
<li id="6.b">Where Your right to use the Licensed Material has terminated under Section [[#6.a|6(a)]], it reinstates:
	<ol type="1">
		<li id="6.b.1">automatically as of the date the violation is cured, provided it is cured within 30 days of Your discovery of the violation; or</li>
		<li id="6.b.2">upon express reinstatement by the Licensor.</li>
    </ol>For the avoidance of doubt, this Section [[#6.b|6(b)]] does not affect any right the Licensor may have to seek remedies for Your violations of this Public License.
</li>
<li id="6.c">For the avoidance of doubt, the Licensor may also offer the Licensed Material under separate terms or conditions or stop distributing the Licensed Material at any time; however, doing so will not terminate this Public License.</li>
<li id="6.d">Sections [[#1|1]], [[#5|5]], [[#6|6]], [[#7|7]], and [[#8|8]] survive termination of this Public License.</li>
</ol>

== <span id="7">Section 7 – Other Terms and Conditions.</span> ==
<ol type="a">
<li id="7.a">The Licensor shall not be bound by any additional or different terms or conditions communicated by You unless expressly agreed.</li>
<li id="7.b">Any arrangements, understandings, or agreements regarding the Licensed Material not stated herein are separate from and independent of the terms and conditions of this Public License.</li>
</ol>

== <span id="8">Section 8 – Interpretation.</span> ==
<ol type="a">
<li id="8.a">For the avoidance of doubt, this Public License does not, and shall not be interpreted to, reduce, limit, restrict, or impose conditions on any use of the Licensed Material that could lawfully be made without permission under this Public License.</li>
<li id="8.b">To the extent possible, if any provision of this Public License is deemed unenforceable, it shall be automatically reformed to the minimum extent necessary to make it enforceable. If the provision cannot be reformed, it shall be severed from this Public License without affecting the enforceability of the remaining terms and conditions.</li>
<li id="8.c">No term or condition of this Public License will be waived and no failure to comply consented to unless expressly agreed to by the Licensor.</li>
<li id="8.d">Nothing in this Public License constitutes or may be interpreted as a limitation upon, or waiver of, any privileges and immunities that apply to the Licensor or You, including from the legal processes of any jurisdiction or authority.</li>
</ol>

{{ombox|image=none|text=
<h3>Creative Commons Notice</h3>
Creative Commons is not a party to its public licenses. Notwithstanding, Creative Commons may elect to apply one of its public licenses to material it publishes and in those instances will be considered the "Licensor." The text of the Creative Commons public licenses is dedicated to the public domain under the ''<span class="plainlinks">[https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/legalcode CC0 Public Domain Dedication]</span>''. Except for the limited purpose of indicating that material is shared under a Creative Commons public license or as otherwise permitted by the Creative Commons policies published at <span class="plainlinks">[https://creativecommons.org/policies creativecommons.org/policies]</span>, Creative Commons does not authorize the use of the trademark "Creative Commons" or any other trademark or logo of Creative Commons without its prior written consent including, without limitation, in connection with any unauthorized modifications to any of its public licenses or any other arrangements, understandings, or agreements concerning use of licensed material. For the avoidance of doubt, this paragraph does not form part of the public licenses.

Creative Commons may be contacted at <span class="plainlinks">[https://creativecommons.org creativecommons.org]</span>.
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[[Category:Wikipedia copyright]]
